Getting the Right Firing Temperature

“what temperature should I use to get a tack fuse that is just less than a contour fuse?”

This is the kind of question that appears on the internet often.  Unfortunately, no one can answer the question accurately, because it depends on some interrelated variables.

Kiln characteristics

Top or side elements, size of kiln, relative size of piece, all have an effect. Also no two kilns even of the same model have exactly the same characteristics.

Ramp Rate 

How quickly or slowly you fire has a big effect on the temperature and soak needed to achieve the desired result. This is the effect of heat work.

Temperature

There are no absolute temperatures for a given effect, given the above two variables.

Soaks

The length of time and the number of soaks will affect the temperature required to achieve your effect.

OK. So, what can I do?

Observation

The only certain way to get the effect you want is to observe.

Set a schedule, guessing the top temperature and length of soak.  Know your controller well enough that you can extend the soak or end the segment by advancing to the next.  Your manual will tell you how to do this.

Peek at intervals from 10-15C below the selected target temperature. Peek at 5min intervals until the effect is achieved.  Advance to the next (cooling) segment.  Record the temperature and length of soak at which the effect was achieved.  On subsequent firings you can experiment with reducing the temperature by 5C – 10C with a 10-minute soak.  Observe and record the temperature and effect as before.

The reason for going for a 10-minute soak rather than longer is to avoid holding at the target temperature for a long time, as that can help induce devitrification.  The reason for a soak at all is to achieve the minimum of marking on the reverse or picking up kiln wash or kiln paper on the back.

If effect is not achieved by the end of the soak, extend it by using the appropriate key or combination of keys.  Keep observing at five-minute intervals until the effect is achieved.  Advance to the next segment and record both the temperature and time.  The objective is to get the heat work done with a 10-minute soak, so you will need to increase the temperature on the next firing.  The amount of increase will depend on the length of soak required to get the desired surface on the previous firing.  The longer the soak, the more temperature you need to add.  You will need to repeat the observations and recording until you find a temperature that will achieve the effect with a 10-minute soak.

Use the lessons from the observations to lower temperature, extend soak, raise temperature, reduce ramp speed, or reduce soak as required.  It will also help you judge on other pieces the approximate temperature and time required for the new layups or new moulds.

Hot Spots in the Kiln

You may suspect you have hot spots in your kiln because of bubbles or one side of the piece being more fully fused than another. A good method for determining the temperature distribution across the kiln is given on the Bullseye site.  It does not require any sophisticated equipment – just supports equal distances apart and strips of glass equally wide and long – to be witnesses for the hotter and cooler parts of the kiln.  You fire slowly to a very low slump temperature – ca. 620C - for only 5 minutes.  Go as fast as possible to the annealing point and soak for 15mins. Then you can turn the kiln off, and let it cool as fast as the kiln can.

This test will show where the hotter areas are.  You will see from the test results that there is a gradual change of temperature across the shelf, rather than small hot areas that would be required for localised large bubbles originating from under the glass.  It will tell you where the cooler areas are, so you can avoid placing pieces in that area when you need precise profiles on the finished piece.

There is little to no relation between hotter areas of the kiln and localised bubbles.  Do not think hot spots are the cause of large bubbles.

Bubbles more often relate to:

Bubble squeeze

Alack of an adequate bubble squeeze, as described here.

Avoidance is the best approach.

Do not be lead into the idea that mistakes are automatically art, or that all of them can be rescued.

Rapid firing rates

Firing rates need to be adjusted to the materials you are firing.

As fast as possible firing rates can cause problems.

High temperature rapid firings can also cause problems.

Rapid firings are more likely to harm the glass than the kiln.

Damaged shelves

Distortions or damage to shelves can trap air and so cause bubbles to form between the shelf and the bottom of the glass.

Checking for flat shelves and fixing.

There are some remedies.

Volume control

Varying volumes within the piece can give problems.

There are a variety of related things that can cause large bubbles.

Glues

Glues and adhesives have a variety of effects and dangers, especially if generous amounts are used:

There are a variety of glues each with their own characteristics.

Uneven layers/layup

You must think of ways for the air to escape from the interior of the glass and from under the glass.  Most often we set up things in a way that creates bubbles. There are two main ways that we do this.

Encased items

When we put glass or other materials between an upper and lower sheet of glass we are creating conditions for bubbles to form.  The encased items hold the upper glass above the lower glass by an amount related to the thickness of the inclusion.  Routes for the air to escape must be planned. 

One of the ways to reduce the height of the space taken up by the enclosures, is to fire upside down with the inclusions on the shelf. This allows the glass -which will be the bottom layer - to form around the materials, reducing the air space between the bottom and capping layer.  This is known as flip and fire.

You then clean the face which will be capped very thoroughly.  Place the capped piece on fiber paper – which can have Thinfire placed over it, or coat with kiln wash.  This is to allow the air in the uneven bottom surface to escape from underneath through the fibre paper.

Weight

Even when there is no encased material, the weight of the glass pieces on top can create areas where the air can be trapped.  On a single layer the arrangement of pieces can create areas where the glass cannot resist the air pressure that cannot disperse from the pockets caused by the glass on top.  Very clear and generous exits for the air are required.

This can happen with two layers as well, although usually a higher temperature is required.  A means of avoiding large bubbles when there is glass – powders, frits or pieces of glass – placed on top is a two-stage firing of the piece.  First fire the base layers together at full fuse so they become one whole.  Then add the decorative elements on top and fire.  Remember to fire more slowly than for two unfired layers.  The main piece is now 6mm thick and needs a slower rise in temperature.  The additional heat work this entails may mean that a lower top temperature, or a shorter soak will be required than normal.  You will need to peek at intervals to check on the progress of the firing.

There is a multiplicity of ways that bubbles large and small can be created.  Careful layups, bubble squeezes, slower rates of advance and lower top temperatures can minimise, but not always eliminate, bubbles.

Striking glass

Yes, much glass is striking in its effect.  But the term is used in a technical sense to indicate the glass has not reached its intended colour without further firing.

A striking glass is one that changes to its true colour. Not one which takes up a different colour.  There seem to be differing ideas on how striking works, but it is an intentional process.

Several glasses coloured with copper or silver strike to Their final colour when heated.  It seems that copper when used to make red (rather than blue or green) can undergo a chemical change during the heating.  The copper oxide used is normally Cu₂O.  When heated the copper and oxygen molecules can separate and form bonds with other molecules.  The rapid cooling that is used in glass prevents the copper and oxygen from combining in the Cu₂O formation.  The extent of this dissociation determines the degree of colour change.  Thus, the colour is affected by the heat work given to the glass – assuming the starting proportions of materials are the same.  This can occur with some other colouring metals too.

Another form of striking is caused by the growth of crystals within the glass. In these cases, usually in silver bearing glass, the metals separate from the silica and form small crystalline structures which are also fixed by the rapid cooling required for glass.

There is another theory that the colour change is due to the orientation of the colouring molecules within the glass matrix.  The idea is that the molecules will change from the clearer state to the struck colour due to the orientation caused by reheating and cooling.

The actual process seems to be unknown in a definitive sense.  What is known is that temperature, a reducing or oxidising atmosphere, and heat work will vary the intensity of the strike in colour.  This means that where the project is especially sensitive, you must undertake experiments to help predict the colour that will be achieved with the conditions you choose to use.

Volume control

Glass has a surface tension (viscosity) that draws the glass toward 6-7 mm thick at kiln forming temperatures. 

To test this out, prepare three stacks of glass squares.  They all should be the same size.  Record the measurements. Place them in a stack of one, a stack of two and the last of three squares.  Fire them to a full fuse.  Compare the sizes of the original to the fired. Note the expanded size of the three-layer stack, the same size of the two-layer stack and the reduced footprint, and dog-boning of the single layer.

Credit: Paul Tarlow

Glass in a single layer behaves differently from the thicker set-ups. When the glass is hot it begins thickening at the edges. The viscosity of the glass is drawing from both from the edge and from the centre.  This means the footprint of the glass is getting smaller. The result is needling. The glass retreats leaving small threads where the glass was held in the small imperfections in the separator’s surface. 

If you do not need a full fuse, you can reduce this needling effect. Reduce the temperature and extend the soak.  This means that the glass does not expand on the heat up so much, and the greater viscosity reduces the needling effect.

If you need a thick piece of a certain size, you need to dam the glass to overcome the tendency to expand.  With experience, you can get to know how much a three-layer (or more) set up will expand and cut the glass accordingly.  In this way, you can often do without dams. There will be some thinning at the edges and a rounding of the corners.

An excellent document on volume control is the Bullseye Tech Note 5.  


Note that this 6mm rule applies at normal kilnforming temperatures.

At higher temperatures, the viscosity is less so the glass will become thinner than 6-7mm.  My experience has shown that at around 1200°C the glass will spread to about 0.5mm thickness.  This is just to point out there is a relationship between temperature and viscosity, and therefore thickness. As the temperature rises, so the viscosity reduces. This relationship allows the glass to become thinner.  At normal kilnforming temperatures, the 6mm rule applies, at higher temperatures it does not.

Further information is available in the e-book: Low Temperature Kilnforming.

Slumping a Form Flat

There are a variety of reasons that you might want to make a formed piece flat again for another kind of slump or drape.

There are lots things you think about when preparing to make a shaped piece flat.

I am going to assume there are no large bubbles in the piece.  You can see the posts  Large bubbles and Bubble at bottom  on the causes.

The following comments are things in five groups to consider when contemplating flattening an already formed shape.

Shape/form

• ·         Shallow forms with no angles have the fewest difficulties.  Take it out of the mould, put it on the prepared shelf and fire to the slump temperature.  Observe when it is flat and proceed to the annealing.
• ·         Forms with angles or multiple curves are a little more difficult.  If the piece has stretched in some areas to conform to the mould, you will have some distortion in the pattern and possibly some thinner areas.  It should be easy to flatten pieces on a prepared shelf with the same schedule, but a slightly higher top temperature as used to slump it.
• ·         Forms where the sides have pulled in will become flat, but continue to have curved sides.
• ·         Deep forms are possibly the most difficult.  The glass may have stretched, giving thin areas.  It may be that the process of flattening the glass will cause a rippled effect as the perimeter of the piece is a smaller size than the original footprint.  These deep forms are the least likely to flatten successfully.

Orientation

• ·         Which way up? Upside down or right side up?  Shallow forms are easiest to flatten by placing them right side up on a prepared shelf.  For deep or highly formed pieces, it may be best to put it upside down to allow the now higher parts to push the perimeter out if it is necessary.

Thickness

• ·         Thick glass will flatten more quickly than thin glass, so you need to keep a watch on the progress of the work to avoid excess marking of the surface of the glass.
• ·         Very thin pieces are likely to develop wrinkles as they flatten.  Even if they do not, there will be thick and thin areas which might cause difficulty in subsequent slumping.
• ·         Tack fused pieces are likely to tend to flatten at different places and times due to the differences in thickness and therefore weight. This makes shallow forms easier to flatten.

Temperatures

• ·         In all these processes, you should use the lowest practical temperature to flatten.  This means that you will need to peek at intervals to see when it is flat.
• ·         Your starting point for the top temperature to use will be about 10°C lower than that at which the original was slumped, normally.  The amount of time may need to be extended significantly. The reason for this is to avoid as much marking on the finished side as possible.
• ·         Shallow forms and thick pieces will flatten more quickly than others, so a lower temperature can be used.  You will still need to observe the progress of the flattening.
• ·         Angled shapes and deep forms will need more heat and time than the shallower ones. 
• ·         Thin pieces may require more time than thick pieces.
• ·         Tack fused pieces need more attention and slow rates of advance to compensate for the differences in thicknesses.

Separators

• ·         Kiln washed shelves are usually adequate for flattening.
• ·         Thinfire or Papyros are needed when flattening upside down to ease any sliding necessary.
• ·         Powdered kiln wash or aluminium hydrate can be dusted over the kiln washed shelf when it is felt the form will need to slide on the shelf while flattening.

It may be that after all this, you feel it is not worth it to flatten.  It certainly is worth the effort, if only to learn about the characteristics of the form and its behaviour in reversing the slump or drape.

Annealing Point and Range

A question has been asked about whether the statement that “annealing longer never hurts” is true.

To understand why this statement is not always true, you need to be aware that annealing is not just the soak at the stated annealing point.

The annealing point has a mathematical description, but in lay terms it is the temperature at which the stresses in the glass are most quickly relieved.  Annealing at this point is only possible in large industrial processes.  It is reported that float glass manufacturers can anneal glass in 15 minutes because of excellent temperature control in their lehrs.  For those of us who do batch annealing such speed and accuracy is not achievable.

As we cannot achieve such accuracy with our kilns, annealing for kiln formers consists of a temperature equalisation soak at the annealing point and then slow cooling through the lower strain point.  That is the point where the glass becomes so stiff that no further annealing is possible. 

Most kilns have relatively cool areas.  They mainly are in the corners and at the front of top hat or front-loading kilns.  You should know where these cool spots are.  They can be checked for by a simple test as described in Bullseye Technote 1.   This will enable you to know if and where any cool spots may be.  In smaller pieces, you can just avoid those areas in the placing of your pieces.

Annealing of large pieces, parts of which must be in the cool areas, is possible.  But not with excessively long anneal soaks.  If the kiln has temperature differentials, a long soak will impose those variations in temperature upon the glass. This means that the glass will begin its annealing cool with variations in temperature across the piece.

During the anneal cooling, research at Bullseye Glass Company has shown that to achieve as stress free a piece of glass as possible, the temperature variation across and through the piece should not vary more than 5°C. This is relatively difficult to achieve if you have cool areas in your kiln.  But it is possible.

To alleviate the possible difficulties of temperature variations in the kiln, the anneal soak should not be extended beyond that recommended by its thickness.  What should be extended is the anneal cool. The rate of cooling should be slowed to the rate for a piece at least twice the thickness of the current piece.

If it is a tack fused piece, this reduction should be for a piece four times the thickness of the thickest piece you are annealing.

The conclusion is that it is possible to anneal too long, if the piece is large and the heat in the kiln is not uniform. If you are concerned, remember that the soak at annealing point is to equalise the temperature throughout the substance of the piece. The annealing cool - the first 110 degrees Celsius - is very important. If you are concerned, it is best slow that rate of decrease dramatically. This provides a safer option for an adequate annealing of large pieces.

Comparisons of "CoE" and Temperatures

This table shows the lack of correlation between CoE and temperature characteristics of the glasses.  See the previous post for the discussion.

	Nominal	Temperatures (celsius)
Manufacturer	CoE	anneal	slump	full fuse
Pilkington UK Float	83	540	720	835
USA Float	83	548	720
Australian Float	84	505-525
Wissmach 90	90	482	638	771
Bullseye	90	482	630-677	804
Uroboros FX90	90	525	649-677	771-788
Kokomo	93	507-477	565
Artista	94	535	565
Spectrum	96	510	663	796
Uroboros	96	510	664	767-774
Wissmach 96	96	510	638	771
	Sorted by annealing point, averaged as necessary               CoE      Anneal       Slump      Full fuse
Kokomo	93	482	565
Wissmach 90	90	482	638	77	1
Spectrum	96	510	663	796
Uroboros	96	510	664	771	(ave)
Wissmach 96	96	482	638	77	1
Australian Float	84	515
Bullseye	90	482	654	804	(ave)
Uroboros FX90	90	525	663	780	(ave)
Artista	94	535	565
Pilkington UK Float	83	540	720	835
USA Float	83	548	515
	Sorted by Slump point, averaged as necessary              CoE       Anneal   Slump Full fuse
USA Float	83	548	515
Artista	94	535	565
Kokomo	93	492	565		(ave)
Bullseye	90	482	654	804	(ave)
Spectrum	96	510	663	796
Uroboros FX90	90	525	663	780	(ave)
Uroboros	96	510	664	771	(ave)
Wissmach 90	90	482	638	77	1
Wissmach 96	96	482	638	771
Pilkington UK Float	83	540	720	835
Australian Float	84	515			(ave)
	Sorted by full fuse, averaged as necessary
Uroboros	96	510	664	771	(ave)
Wissmach 90	90	482	638	771
Wissmach 96	96	482	638	771
Uroboros FX90	90	525	663	780	(ave)
Spectrum	96	510	663	796
Bullseye	90	482	654	804	(ave)
Pilkington UK Float	83	540	720	835
Artista	94	535	565
USA Float	83	548	515
Australian Float	84	515			(ave)
Kokomo	93	492	565		(ave)

Broken Base Layers

Sometimes in fusing, the base layer can exhibit a crack or break without the upper layers being affected.  This kind of break almost always occurs on the heat up.  In a tack fuse, the top layers may still be horizontal and unaffected by the break beneath them.  If a full fuse, the upper layers will slump into the gap, or apparently seal a crack that is apparent on either side.

An example of tack fused elements on top of a previously fused base

Causes

This is more likely to be seen where there is a large difference between thicknesses.  If the base is a single or double layer and there are several layers of glass – especially opalescent – on top, there is a greater chance for this kind of break to occur.

The reason for this kind of break is that the upper layers insulate the part of the lower layers they are resting upon.  Glass is an insulator, and so a poor conductor of heat.  This means that the glass under the stack is cooler than the part(s) not covered.  A break occurs when the stress of this temperature differential is too great to be contained.

An example of  stacked glass in a tack fusing

This kind of break can also occur when there are strongly contrasting colours or glasses that absorb the heat of fusing at different rates.  One case would be where the dark lower layer(s) were insulated by a stack of white or pale opalescent glass.  The opalescent glass will absorb the heat more slowly than the dark base.  This increases the risk of too great a temperature differential in the base.

Reducing the risk of these breaks.

Even thicknesses

One way to reduce the risk of base layer breaks is to keep the glass nearly the same thickness over the whole of the piece.  Sometimes this will not give you the effect you wish to obtain.

Slow the firing rate

Another way is to slow down the temperature rise.  Some would add in soaks at intervals to allow the glass under the stack to catch up in temperature.  As we know from annealing, glass performs best when the temperature changes are gradual and steady.  Rapid or even moderate rates of advance with soaks, do not provide the steady input of heat.

This prompts the question of how fast the rate of advance should be, and to what temperature. 

Rate of advance

The rate of advance needs to take account of the thickness differential and the total thickness together.  A safe, but conservative, approach is to add the difference in thickness between the thinner and the thickest parts of the piece to the thickest.  Then program a rate of advance to accommodate that thickness.  E.g., a 6mm base with a 9mm stack has a total height of 15mm.  The difference is 9mm which added to 15mm means you want a rate of advance that will accommodate a 24mm piece.

The rate of advance can be estimated from the final annealing cool rate required for that thickness.  In the example above, the rate would be about 100°C per hour.  The more layers there are, the more you need to slow the heat up of the glass. The Bullseye table for Annealing Thick Slabs is the most useful guide here.

Firing already fused elements

If you were adding an already full fused piece of 9mm thick to a 6mm base, you could have a slightly more rapid heat up, bu not by a lot. This is because the heat will be transmitted more quickly through a single solid piece to the base glass.  It is safer to maintain the initial calculation. If your stack is tack fused, this will not apply, as the heat will move more slowly through the layers of the tack fusing much the same way as independent layers on the initial firing.

Conclusion

The general point is that you need to dramatically slow the speed of firing when you have stacked elements on a relatively thin base.  Even a two layer base can exhibit this kind of break when there is a lot of glass stacked on it.

Single Layer Slumping

Almost all glass can be slumped as a single layer, whether produced for kiln working or not.  A few are extra sensitive at even slumping temperature and change character at around 630C-650°C, but all others can be slumped.  This posts concentrates on slumping of single layers of non-fusing compatible glass, but most of these elements can be applied to fusing compatible glass too.

The things you need to take care about are:

• Temperature
• Soak Times
• Edges
• Devitrification
• Annealing
• Testing

It certainly is possible to slump single layers. The resulting glass will be slightly less robust than two or more layers of glass, but simply because it is thinner.

Temperature

The temperature that you use needs to be high enough to allow the glass to take the shape of the mould, but low enough that the glass does not distort or stretch and thin.  This is a balance that you can achieve through observation of the firing. 

It most often is best to use the lowest practical forming temperature that you can.  Practicality here is about how long you want to wait for the glass to conform to the mould.  It is possible to take the glass to about 580°C and soak for multiple hours, but not very practical.  It does depend on the glass as to the temperature to be used for the slump.  There are two sources here that can help: the slump point test  and this table of glass characteristics. 

Soak times

A practical soak time will be 30 – 90 minutes, which will avoid marking the underside of the glass.  This means that the temperature will need to be lower than the softening (or slump) point of the glass. Your slump point test will tell you the temperature at which the glass begins to deform.  That is the best temperature to use.  If it is taking too long, advance the temperature by about 10°C.  If you used the table of glass characteristics to find a softening point, reduce that temperature by about 30°C as a starting point.

Edges

The temperature that you will choose to use is not high enough to allow the edges to change as they would in a fuse.   This means that you need to have the edges exactly as you want them in the finished project.  This will require cold working by hand or machine.  Neither will take a long time, but require the correct tools. This post gives you the comparison of fused and cold working methods.

Devitrification

While most glass can be slumped you need to be careful with opalescent glass, as it can devitrify easily.  Most wispy glasses are fine, but the more opalescent wisps they have, the more difficult there may be.  Streaky and single colour glasses are usually fine. 

Annealing

Another element in slumping glass not formulated for kiln working is the annealing of the glass after the slumping.  The annealing temperature can be estimated as 40C below a low temperature slump of a 280mm span of glass. The slump point test mentioned earlier will help determine the annealing point. You need to soak for a time - maybe 30 minutes - at the estimated annealing temperature and then cool slowly in case you have miscalculated on the annealing temperature.  In any case, a long slow anneal cool will pay dividends in a more robust glass.

Testing

You will find some manufacturers’ glasses are less adaptable to kiln forming than others.  So, it is best to run tests on the glass before committing to larger projects.

Remember TADSET - temperature, annealing, devitrification, soak, edges, test.

Firing Rates

Top temperature is, to a small extent, variable between kilns, even from the same manufacturer.  But it is a small part of variations in top temperature required to get the same results in differing kilns.

An example of a firing schedule

It is, more importantly, a function of how the heat is put into the glass. Firing as fast as possible to the top temperature does not allow all the glass to be at the same temperature. This is because glass is a good insulator and the transfer of heat from the top or the sides is relatively slow.  For small things, you can fire very fast, as there is a small mass of glass to absorb the heat.  But a speed of 250°C is fast enough for anything more than 100mm square and at least two 3mm layers thick.  (Thicker glass requires slower rates of advance as surprisingly do single layer projects).  The slower rate of advance allows the glass to be all of a similar temperature from top to bottom, allowing the desired effect to be achieved at lower temperatures or shorter soak times. 

For example, a slower rate of advance will give rounded edges at shorter soak times than a rapid rate of advance will require.  Alternatively, it might require a lower temperature with the same soak time.  Keep in mind that, in general, lower temperatures with slower rates of advance, give better results.

The faster your rate of advance, the more the glass lags behind the air temperature (which is what pyrometers are measuring). Therefore, a reasonable pace will give better results than the as fast as possible rate of advance. 

In short, the variations in top temperature required and length of soak is not about the kiln firing cooler or hotter as much as it is about the firing rate.

Hot Short Firings - Kiln Forming Myths 28

The hottest temperature for the least time always gives you best results.

It is difficult to imagine where or how this instruction arose.  Just as “low and slow” is not always the answer, so this also has its application, but not as a general practice.

In general, I try to get my fusing work done in 10 minutes at the working temperature.  Any less time there and I feel I am trying to go too fast. 

Advancing very fast normally requires a higher temperature than a slow advance, to get the same result.  Also with a higher temperature you do not need to have as long a soak as at a lower temperature.

It is more difficult to get repeatable results with fast firings.  A more controlled rate of advance will allow the controller to cope with any variations (e.g., power, or mass of material being fired) present. 

But you need to know why you are doing the AFAP for as short a time as possible.  It can be useful for small and jewellery scale items.  It certainly is not applicable to larger or thicker items. 

For slumping, it may be that the reverse of the headline suggestion could be the appropriate response.  Slow advances allow the glass to gently conform to the mould without excessive stretching.  This is also helped by using a low temperature and a long soak. 

These observations show that the injunction may be appropriate for some work, but most kiln work is better done with a slower, lower, longer approach.  This means slower rates of advance, lower target temperatures, longer soaks.

The Effect of Glass Temperature on Cutting

There are many opinions on how glass cuts when cold.  Some report cutting outdoors in sub-freezing temperatures, others that only warm glass cuts well.  I decided to see what scientific information there may be on this idea.

The Science

The scientific literature mostly concentrates on the effects at higher temperatures than we are concerned with.  However, there are some things that are applicable, and some of these effects of temperature are outlined below.

·         High humidity results in loss of strength. 

·         The strength of glass is reduced by 25% at 100°C compared to 0°C.

·         Glass needs several days to be at an even temperature throughout.

·         Variance in temperature across the glass causes unwanted breakages.

·         Colder glass becomes more brittle due to loss of elasticity.

·         Hardness of glass increases with decreasing temperature.

The terms of strength, hardness and brittleness have scientific definitions that are hard to apply to the everyday glass cutting that we do.  Strength may or may not have applicability to glass cutting.  Elasticity may or may not be an important factor in cutting.  Surface hardness may play a part in cutting while cold.

Applicability of the Science

However some things seem to apply. 

High humidity results in loss of strength.  This may be a factor in low temperature cutting.  The humidity in a relatively closed environment increases with the reduction in temperature.  Breaking glass is about the creation of a weakness in the glass along the score line.  In so far as strength is a factor in the break running along the score line, this may be an element in cold glass cutting.  If the whole glass is weaker, the difference in strength at the score line is less and so promotes unwanted breaks.

Variance of the temperature of the glass throughout the substance of the glass promotes unwanted breakages.  Perhaps the cold glass that is difficult to cut is not equally cold throughout.  Certainly a number of people report that they store their large glass outdoors and can still score and break the glass during the winter perfectly well before bringing it into the studio. 

Glass becomes more brittle with decreasing temperature, and it also becomes harder.  Perhaps these two elements are a factor in controlling breakages.  If the glass is both harder and more brittle, a different scoring method is required. 

The way in which glass at any temperature breaks is related to the force of the score, the speed of the score and the angle of the cutting wheel.  If the glass is both harder (at the surface) and more brittle it requires less scoring force or a blunter wheel angle.  The more blunt the wheel on a thicker (i.e. stronger) glass, the more vertical the stress lines are created in the glass.  So in a cold and harder glass, a blunter wheel angle seems appropriate, even though the glass is not thicker.

It is not usual for people to have cutting wheels of different angles, so an easier, although more skilled, approach is to reduce the scoring force in cold conditions.  Reducing the force in scoring a hard and brittle glass causes the stress lines to be more vertical than increased forces do.  Increased forces cause lateral lines of stress to be created, leading to unwanted breakages.

Secondly, the glass being more brittle, less force in breaking stress is required.  As the glass becomes colder, the less elastic it is.  This elasticity is an important element in breaking the glass at room temperatures. The score needs to be run gently to counteract the loss of elasticity and the consequent increase in the brittle strength of the glass.

Conclusions

My conclusion, after the reading I’ve done, is that cold glass becomes slightly stronger and more brittle than room temperature glass, and so requires a slightly different method of cutting. This difference is to reduce the pressure of scoring and the force of breaking (applying stress to the glass).  

Of course you can warm the glass up before scoring it, but the research seems to indicate that significantly long times are required to equalise the temperature throughout.

What is Viscosity

What is Viscosity?

An example of differing viscosities

There are a variety of definitions, but these two capture the main elements.

Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow. Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of layers with differing velocities within them.  Source

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.  Source

A demonstration of the resistance of different viscosities of oil to a weight moving through the liquid.

Almost all liquids are viscous fluids having viscidity. For example, when rotating a drum container filled with water on its vertical central axis, the water that was at rest in the beginning starts moving as it is dragged by the container’s inside wall and then whirls completely together with the container as if it were a single rigid body. This is caused by the force (resistance) generated in the direction of the flow (movement) on the surfaces of the water and the container’s inside wall. A fluid that generates this kind of force is regarded as having viscosity.

Temperature is a very important factor for measuring viscosity. In fluids, as temperature goes up, viscosity goes down and vice versa. In the case of distilled water, if the temperature changes 1 centigrade, it produces a difference of 2 % to 3 % in viscosity.  Source

Viscosity is the measurement of a fluid's internal resistance to flow. This is typically designated in units of centipoise or poise but can be expressed in other acceptable measurements as well. Source

Why is viscosity important?

“Near the strain point the expansion increases rapidly and sometimes erratically.” The links between the molecules has reduced in strength and so have a lesser role in the forces acting at higher temperatures. “In those upper ranges – the temperatures where glasses are formed and re-formed with heat – viscosity is a much more useful indicator of how glasses will behave.

“The combination of viscosity and COE are what make glasses more or less compatible, i.e., containing stress in amounts low enough to allow them to hold together without breaking at room temperature for extended periods of time under normal circumstances.

Bullseye found in the early 1980s in their efforts to mix coloured glasses in streaky colour combinations that the COE could not be used to predict compatibility. In trying to correct the compatibility of certain mixed glasses, the closer they brought together the COEs, the more incompatible became the mixes.

“The reason that we could not use COE to successfully predict whether a coloured glass would fit the base clear glass was/is because, as the base glass composition is altered with the addition of the necessary oxides to colour it, the viscosity is inevitably changed. This viscosity change causes the coloured glass and the clear base glass to strain themselves in the cooling cycle of the fusing process (a viscosity mismatch). Therefore once the two glasses reach room temperature they have undue residual strain that may lead to failure.

“In order to prevent this undue residual strain an equal but opposite strain must be introduced into the coloured glass to cancel out the strain induced by the viscosity mismatch. This is accomplished by introducing an expansion mismatch of equal but opposite strain. The two mismatches cancel each other out, leaving the two glasses nearly strain free.

“It is this phenomenon (viscosity mismatch cancelled out by an equal but opposite expansion mismatch) that enables glasses of very different compositions to be formulated to fit each other. The very fact that the expansion of a coloured glass has to be altered to make it fit a base clear glass implies that COE cannot be used as an indicator of compatibility. It is also why it only makes sense to describe these glasses as tested compatible to a specific manufacturer's base glass for a specific glass forming process.“ [L. MacGreggor]

Even different formulations of glass have different viscosities and different rates of softening with temperature increases.

How does viscosity apply to us?

Although viscosity is of major importance to the manufacturer, it does have some relevance to kiln formers too.

Understanding that glasses have different viscosities – most often referred to as hard and soft – can help in the choice of colours and styles of glass to combine. Some glass will spread more, and also allow other glass to sink deeper into the layer than others. It might help avoid combining extremely hard and soft glasses next to each other.

It should also help explain some results that were not planned. It may help in when thinking about uneven slumps.

It is important to recognise that glass chemistry is extremely complicated, and to see that the expansion characteristics have to be balanced with the viscosity characteristics as the two main elements in compatibility. There are others, of course, but these appear to the two main ones.