Avoiding Grinding Lines

 

Sometimes in a completed piece a grey line appears between pieces or at the edge of the whole piece. Most often these are the result of grinding the edges to fit with each other, which leads to devitrification.

In scoring and breaking glass to fit into a fusing project, there are often adjustments needed to the pieces for a good fit, so processes need to be used to minimise grinding.

The obvious preventive is accuracy in scoring and breaking to get a good fit without adjustments. This reduces the need for changing the shape.

Many people use their grinders to make the adjustments required though. Most grinders use a medium or coarse grinder bit. This leaves many pits in the edges of the glass, requiring a significant amount of cleaning to remove glass dust from them. The general practice is to place any ground piece immediately into water to avoid the glass particles drying into the pits. This is rarely sufficient to avoid devitrification, because the surface of the edges are not smooth, enabling devitrification to grow on those rough areas.

Fine grinding heads are available and should be used when adjusting sizes for kilnforming. These need to be cleaned just as for the coarser grits. The results of grinding with a fine grit bit (or to 400 grit with other tools) is usually enough when clean to avoid devitrification.

Another way to eliminate the appearance of grinding lines is to avoid grinding altogether. If adjustments are necessary, groze the glass to shape. The slight irregularities will be accommodated by the movement of the glass during contour and full fuses. Larger spaces between glass can be filled with powder of the same colour. If the joint has different colours, use the powder of the darker or denser colour as it will fill the gaps with less evidence.

Glass in Microelectronics

 Passivation involves depositing a protective material onto the surface of metals or metal alloys to enhance their resistance to environmental factors and glass is an excellent choice for this.

Image source: iStock

In the fast-paced world of semiconductor manufacturing, where precision and reliability are paramount, choosing a suitable passivation material is critical to ensuring the optimal performance of electronic devices. Among the library of viable materials, glass has gained significant attention for its unique properties and versatility. This article looks at how glass is used for passivation and what properties make it highly suitable for the job.

Understanding Passivation in Semiconductors

Before unpacking the specifics of glass as a material for passivation, it is essential to understand the concept of passivation in semiconductor manufacturing. Passivation involves depositing a protective material onto the surface of metals or metal alloys to enhance their resistance to environmental factors.

The layering material can be organic or inorganic and should exhibit excellent electrical insulation and strong substrate adhesion, as well as block the ingress of chemical species. In the case of semiconductors, passivation is crucial to preventing degradation and ensuring long-term reliability.^1,2

Why Use Glass for Passivation?

Glass has emerged as a compelling choice for passivation due to its unique combination of properties. For example, glass can be formulated in numerous ways, with common types including Pb-Si-Al, Zn-B-Si, and Pb-Zn-B. This allows manufacturers to produce glass capable of meeting low and high-voltage electrical specifications; matching the coefficient of thermal expansion of semiconductor materials; and meeting the low temperature processing requirements.^3,4

Glass is chemically durable and thus can provide an inert barrier against external elements, such as moisture and contaminants, which might otherwise compromise the semiconductor’s performance. Moreover, the high transparency of some glasses, such as borosilicate glass, makes them ideal for applications with critical optical properties, such as photovoltaics. This transparency enables efficient energy transmission and absorption, contributing to the overall performance of semiconductor devices and solar cells.^5,6

How are Semiconductors Passivated?

Glass can be deposited onto semiconductors in a variety of ways. Choosing methods for passivation depends on factors such as the semiconductor device’s specific requirements, the passivation layer’s desired properties, and the overall manufacturing process. Methods for achieving glass passivation in semiconductor manufacturing include:⁷

• Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), including plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD)
• Physical vapor deposition (PVD), including E-beam deposition
• Sputter Coating
• Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)

In manufacturing, the process of glass passivation is frequently succeeded by chemical procedures, such as the etching of contact windows or the electrolytic deposition of contacts. These procedures may pose a threat to the integrity of the glass.

The chemical resistance of different passivation glasses varies significantly and serves as a crucial factor in determining the suitable glass type and the accompanying etching process.⁸

Comparing Glass to Other Materials

While various materials can be used for passivation, glass stands out for its exceptional stability over temperature, humidity, and time. Literature searches reveal a lack of head-to-head comparisons with other common passivation materials; however, general comparisons can be drawn.⁶

Amorphous silicon (a-Si) films utilized in solar cells present numerous advantages. These include a lower deposition temperature, in contrast to the temperatures commonly employed in cell manufacturing. However, it is essential to note that a-Si films exhibit sensitivity to subsequent high-temperature processes, which are frequently necessary in industrial manufacturing technology.⁹

Similarly, AlO_x passivation films can be applied at relatively low temperatures but can be limited by slow deposition speeds when using specific application methods. This can generate problems for high-throughput techniques, such as solar cell production.⁹

Polyimide, a common passivation material lauded for its strength and thermal stability, is also susceptible to moisture absorption. This can impact the strength and dielectric properties of the protective coating, risking the integrity of the semiconductor.¹⁰

Applications of Glass Passivation

Passivation glasses demonstrate outstanding performance in wafer passivation and encapsulation processes, providing advantages to a diverse range of semiconductor devices, including:⁸

• Thyristors
• Power transistors
• Diodes
• Rectifiers
• Varistors

Glass also has applications in solar cell passivation. In a recent study, researchers developed a method for enhancing borosilicate glass (BSG) passivation using high temperatures before lowering the temperature to accommodate the metallization process. In doing so, they notably improved the solar cell’s efficiency.¹¹

In another study, phosphosilicate glass (PSG) was found to significantly enhance the practical lifetime of minority carriers and improve the overall performance of solar cells, particularly in structures involving nanocrystalline silicon and crystalline silicon.¹²

Mo-Sci’s Expertise in Glass Thin Films

Fueled by the increasing prevalence of smart devices and advancements in the automotive and aerospace sectors, the semiconductor passivation glass market is anticipated to grow consistently in the next few years.³

Mo-Sci’s expertise lies in leveraging the unique properties of glass to create tailored solutions, ensuring the reliability and performance of many applications, including glass seals and glass coatings. Contact us for more information.

Krista Grayson

References and Further Reading

1. Pehkonen, S.O., et al. (2018). Chapter 2 – Self-Assembly Ultrathin Film Coatings for the Mitigation of Corrosion: General Considerations. Interface Science and Technology. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813584-6.00002-8
2. Lu, Q., et al. (2018). Chapter 5 – Polyimides for Electronic Applications. Advanced Polyimide Materials. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812640-0.00005-6
3. Reliable Business Insights. [Online] Semiconductor Passivation Glass Market – Global Outlook and Forecast 2023-2028. Available at: https://www.reliablebusinessinsights.com/purchase/1365249?utm_campaign=2&utm_medium=cp_9&utm_source=Linkedin&utm_content=ia&utm_term=semiconductor-passivation-glass&utm_id=free (Accessed on 05 January 2024).
4. Schott. [Online] Passivation Glass. Available at: https://www.schott.com/en-hr/products/passivation-glass-p1000287/technical-details (Accessed on 05 January 2024).
5. Zhong, C., et al. (2022). Properties and mechanism of amorphous lead aluminosilicate passivation layers used in semiconductor devices through molecular dynamic simulation. Ceramics International. doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.07.191
6. Hansen, U., et al. (2009). Robust and Hermetic Borosilicate Glass Coatings by E-Beam Evaporation. Procedia Chemistry. doi.org/10.1016/j.proche.2009.07.019
7. Korvus Technology. [Online] The Revolution of PVD Systems in Thin Film Semiconductor Production. Available at: https://korvustech.com/thin-film-semiconductor/ (Accessed on 05 January 2024).
8. Schott. Technical Glasses: Physical and Technical Properties. Available at: https://www.schott.com/-/media/project/onex/shared/downloads/melting-and-hot-forming/390768-row-schott-technical-glasses-view-2020-04-14.pdf?rev=-1
9. Bonilla, R.S., et al. (2017). Dielectric surface passivation for silicon solar cells: A review. Physica Status Solidi. doi.org/10.1002/pssa.201700293
10. Babu, S.V., et al. (1993). Reliability of Multilayer Copper/Polyimide. Defense Technical Information Centre. Available at: https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA276228
11. Liao, B., et al. (2021). Unlocking the potential of boronsilicate glass passivation for industrial tunnel oxide passivated contact solar cells. Progress in Photovoltaics. doi.org/10.1002/pip.3519
12. Imamura, K., et al. (2018). Effective passivation for nanocrystalline Si layer/crystalline Si solar cells by use of phosphosilicate glass. Solar Energy. doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.04.063

Devising Slumping Schedules

A while ago Bob Leatherbarrow gave a presentation to Lunch With A Glass Artist (LWAGA) on slumping schedules. You can follow a recording of the Zoom meeting after joining the Facebook group: Lunch With A Glass Artist – Larry Pile.

The most important point for thinking about the process he brought up is his order of consideration of factors. They are:

• span
• thickness
• viscosity

How big is the unsupported part of the glass. Glass on larger span moulds will begin slumping at lower temperatures.

The thickness has an effect. With the same ramp rate thicker glass will need higher temperature.

The viscosity of the glass also affects the temperature of the slump. Low viscosity glass will slump at lower temperatures than higher ones, e.g., black vs. white.

Then you can begin to think about temperature and time. The objective is to use the lowest temperature to get the slump done in 30 minutes, so there is no marking of the glass touching the mould.

There is a lot more in the presentation to LWAGA. Join the Facebook page by answering two questions to get access.

There is even more information about fusing principles and practices in his book FiringSchedules for Kilnforming, Just Another Day at the Office.   This inexpensive eBook is worth much more than the purchase price!

A lot of information is also contained in my e-book Low Temperature Kilnforming, available from Bullseye, Etsy and from Stephen.richard43@gmail.com

Glass Microspheres in Medicine

 

Using Embolic Glass Microspheres to Target Chronic Disease

Sierra Kucko

•

February 5, 2025

Glass microspheres under magnification. Image source: MO SCI.

Glass Microspheres: The Tiny Superheroes of Glass Form Factors

Two main factors contribute to the properties of glass: composition and form factor. While emphasis is often placed on glass composition, the form factor is arguably equal in importance. Glass in the form of microspheres has permeated various industries, ranging from aerospace to medical sectors. MO SCI specializes in the production of precision glass microspheres that have become invaluable to these industries, and their usage is ever-evolving. Whether it be controlling gaps for adhesive bondline spacing, improving the visibility of road markings, or drug delivery devices, glass microspheres fit the bill.

Targeted Treatment with Embolic Glass Microspheres

Biocompatible (and in some cases biodegradable) microspheres are especially appreciated for medical applications, such as transarterial embolization (TEA) or musculoskeletal (MSK) embolization.^1,2

TEA refers to the blockage of blood supply, which may sound like a bad thing, but in many cases, these are lifesaving procedures. For example, a substantial driver for this technology is cancer treatment. One way to combat a tumor or abnormal tissue growth is to cut off its blood supply, which can be achieved through the precise application of appropriately sized microspheres to occlude the fine vasculature ‘feeding’ it.¹

Similarly, MSK embolic microspheres are sought after to prevent the abnormal overgrowth of blood vessels, a consequence of chronic inflammation. This kind of inflammation is part of a pathological loop, whereby the inflammation promotes the formation of new blood vessels that in turn, can feed nerve growth and contribute to chronic, debilitating pain.² Microsphere embolization can therefore be used as a pain management tool, as well. For applications with this level of weightiness, the microsphere size is a chief feature.

Together with the form factor, glass microspheres can be tailored through their composition. First and foremost, any implantable glass must be compatible with the body. Ancillary to this, the composition can be altered to offer additional functionality. Using TAE as an example to put this concept into context, the composition of glass used in this type of application is unique and important.

TAE is a procedure utilized by interventional radiologists. Interventional radiology (IR) is the diagnosing and/or treatment of cancer and other conditions while avoiding major surgery. To achieve this, small tools such as needles, catheters, or wires are utilized in conjunction with radiation like MRI, ultrasound, etc. to apply treatment precisely to the tissue site.^1–3 Personalization and optimization of outcomes is a clinical challenge of any medical intervention, making the accurate delivery and distribution of the embolic particles in real-time indispensable.

Due to the use of radiation to guide the placement, the embolic particle should be radiopaque (opaque to radiation) to ensure that guided delivery to the site can be realized. Compared with glass, this radiopacity is lacking or more difficult to achieve in microspheres derived from other material types.

Partner with MO SCI for Precision Glass Microspheres

Each application of glass is unique and therefore may require unique chemistries and form factors. Glass microspheres are becoming increasingly popular, since their form factor alone may improve the function of the glass (depending on the application) when compared to their powder or frit counterparts.

For applications that require precise microsphere size and composition, it is important to turn to trusted experts. MO SCI produces a wide range of glass microspheres in a variety of chemistries to suit nearly any need. Contact us today to learn how glass microspheres may be beneficial for your application.

References

1.  Pérez-López A., et al. (2022). Embolization therapy with microspheres for the treatment of liver cancer: state-of-the-art of clinical translation. Acta Biomaterialia. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2022.07.019

2.  Gremen E., et al. (2022). Safety and efficacy of embolization with microspheres in chronic refractory inflammatory shoulder pain: a pilot monocentric study on 15 patients. Biomedicines. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040744

3.  Kishore S, et al, (2021). Transarterial embolization for the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal pain: a systematic review of indications, safety and efficacy. ACR Open Rheumatology. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr2.11383

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Glass Surge Protectors

 "Surge arresters are the primary defense for electrical equipment against over-voltages. These essential devices house metal oxide varistors (MOVs), which act as rapid-response protectors against voltage spikes. To optimize the performance and ensure the safety of MOVs, effective insulation is required around their outer surfaces."

image source: iStock

Slumping Research

The following is an abstract of an article investigating the behaviour of glass in slumping (or as they term it - sagging).  They are using optical glass which has a much higher viscosity at its slumping temperature than fusing glass, but the principles are transferable.  They indicate quick firing to the strain point (which is about 500C/930F) is possible, but that best results come from progressing slowly to the slump soak temperature.  

The article is as follows|: 

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of the Heating Process of Glass Thermal Slumping

• Author: Zhao Dachun, Liu Peng, He Lingping, Chen Bo

• Publish: Journal of the Optical Society of Korea Volume 20, Issue2, p314~320, 25 Apr 2016

https://oak.go.kr/central/journallist/journaldetail.do?article_seq=20778

The abstract of the article follows.

“Simulations performed for different heating rates resulted in different sag variation between glass and mold; higher heating rate caused larger sag variation. Therefore, to save time in manufacturing, the furnace should be heated to about 500℃ quickly, but then to the soaking temperature slowly. According to the simulation, the maximum sag variation decreased with higher soaking temperature. Considering the temperature-dependent viscosity of glass, the optimal soaking temperature was about 800℃.

Based on the optimized experimental conditions, glass samples of thickness 0.5 mm were formed in a furnace with a concave parabolic mold made of steel. Slumped glass was produced and tested. Comparison between surface profiles of the formed glass, theoretical data, and mold suggested that the quality of the slumped glass can be significantly improved by optimizing the shape of the mold. The RMS and PV sag deviations between formed glass and mold were 2.3 and 4.7 μm respectively, along the axial direction.

On the other hand, with a soaking temperature of 800℃ the formed glass was still not fully slumped at the edges, according to the radial deviation seen in experimental results, which meant that the glass was not making full contact with the mold. The experimental results agreed with the numerical predictions. Therefore, trimming the edges is necessary to achieve a better surface profile. Based on the simulated and measured results, improvements can be made in future research, and new mold materials or manufacturing processes should be adopted to improve the shape accuracy of the mold.”

Devising Slumping Schedules

A while ago Bob Leatherbarrow gave a presentation to Lunch With A Glass Artist (LWAGA) on slumping schedules. You can follow a recording of the Zoom meeting after joining the facebook group Lunch With A Glass Artist – Larry Pile.

The most important point for thinking about the process he follows is the order of slumping factors. They are:

• span

• thickness

• viscosity

How big is the unsupported part of the glass?   Glass on larger span moulds will begin slumping at lower temperatures than on smaller spans.

The thickness has an effect. With the same ramp rate thicker glass will need higher temperature or longer time.

The viscosity of the glass also affects the temperature of the slump. Low viscosity glass will slump at lower temperatures than higher ones, e.g., black vs. white.

Then you can begin to think about temperature and time. The objective is to use the lowest temperature to get the slump done in 30 minutes to avoid marking of the glass touching the mould, leaving a smooth shiny back.

There is a lot more in the presentation to LAWAGA. Join the facebook page to get access.

There is even more information about fusing principles and practices in his book Firing Schedules for Kilnforming, Just Another Day at the Office.

https://www.leatherbarrowglass.com/purchase/firing-schedules-for-kilnformed-glass

This inexpensive eBook is worth much more than the purchase price!

Glass in Electronics

"Glass, a highly functional material integral to modern technology, plays an active role in the world of electronics and energy. From the screens of our smartphones to the fibers that carry internet signals across oceans, glass is at the heart of many technologies that rely on its unique electrical properties. " 

Image generated with the assistance of AI

Glass, a highly functional material integral to modern technology, plays an active role in the world of electronics and energy. From the screens of our smartphones to the fibers that carry internet signals across oceans, glass is at the heart of many technologies that rely on its unique electrical properties.

This article aims to shed light on these properties—from dielectric constants to electrical resistivity—exploring how they are influenced by glass composition. We will delve into the science behind these properties and their diverse applications in today’s technology-driven world. This journey will reveal not just a material but a versatile and essential component of countless electrical and electronic innovations.

The Relationship Between Composition and Electrical Properties

Dating back to 1845, glass was initially chosen for its insulating capabilities in telegraph communications. Fast forward to today, over 360,000 different compositions of glass have been documented, each engineered for specific electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties to meet diverse technological needs. This broad spectrum of compositions is a testament to the material’s adaptability in electrical applications.

The following discussion will detail some of the commonly measured electrical properties of glass,² examine the effects of compositional variations on these properties, and provide insight into the role of different components in enhancing or moderating these properties for advanced technological applications.

The Dielectric Constant

The dielectric constant is a critical factor in a material’s ability to store electrical charge under an electric field. As a dielectric material, glass acts as an electrical insulator, meaning that electric charges do not flow through it as they do in conductors like metals. Instead, when exposed to an electric field, the positive and negative charges within the glass are displaced—positive charges move towards the field, while negative charges move away. This charge separation, or polarization, reduces the internal electric field in the glass, enabling it to store charge.³

This dielectric behavior can be observed when glass is inserted between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor. This augments the capacitance value, enhancing its ability to store opposing charges on each plate.³

The relationship between the composition of glass and its dielectric constant is an active research area. This relationship is complex, requiring an understanding of how the various elemental components within glass contribute to polarization.

Generally, glasses with higher dielectric constants tend to contain alkalis, alkaline earth, and heavy-metal cations like lead, bismuth, and tungsten,⁴ and research has revealed that altering the composition of glass can impact its dielectric constant. For instance, replacing silicon with aluminum in sodium aluminosilicate glasses, increasing tungsten oxide in sodium germanium borosilicate glasses, and adjusting copper oxide levels in borate zinc-fluoride glasses can raise the dielectric constant. On the other hand, adding rare earth oxides to alkali-free aluminoborosilicate glass can lower its dielectric constant.^4,5,6,7

By manipulating the elemental makeup of glass, researchers and engineers can tailor its electrical characteristics to meet specific technological needs, paving the way for advanced and specialized uses in various industries.

Loss Tangent

When glass is exposed to an alternating electric field, a portion of the electrical energy is stored in line with its dielectric constant. However, not all energy is efficiently stored; some is inevitably lost, predominantly as heat, a phenomenon known as dielectric loss. The dielectric loss tangent of glass relates to this dissipation of electrical energy and can result from various physical processes, including electrical conduction, dielectric relaxation, and dielectric resonance.^8,9

For applications like high-frequency electronic circuits, where minimizing energy dissipation is crucial, the composition of the glass must be meticulously tailored to achieve a low loss tangent. This careful adjustment ensures that the glass performs optimally, avoiding unnecessary energy waste.

While it has been observed that the levels of impurities in glass can impact dielectric loss, in the case of borosilicate (BRS) glass-reinforced PTFE composites used for microwave substrate applications, researchers found that decreasing BRS filler size can reduce the loss tangent.^10,11 This finding underscores the importance of material composition and structure in achieving desired electrical properties for specific technological applications.

Conductivity and Resistivity

Conductivity and resistivity are also fundamental properties, especially with regard to electronic applications. Put simply, electronic conductivity involves the transmission of electrical charge by electrons, which are negatively or positively charged electron holes. Glass, characterized by its covalent and ionic bonding structure, typically shows conductivity levels far lower than those in metals, making it an ideal insulator.

Notably, two glass families exhibit significant electronic conduction:

1. Oxide glasses containing high amounts of transition metal oxides exhibit enhanced conductivity. These oxides introduce unpaired electrons, facilitating electron flow.
2. Chalcogenide and tetrahedral glasses, where the inherent covalent bonding contributes to their conductive properties.¹²

By adjusting specific elements within the glass, such as incorporating elements with free electrons or modifying the bonding structures, manufacturers can tailor glass to have specific conductivity and resistivity characteristics. This ability to customize glass properties makes it versatile for various electronic applications, from insulators to conductive components.

Applications

Glasses with low dielectric constants are crucial in applications where minimizing electrical losses, signal distortion, or interference is essential. For this reason, they are used in high-performance microelectronic systems, such as substrates in semiconductor packaging and in thick-film resistors. On the other hand, glasses with high dielectric constants are important for high-magnitude capacitors and multilayer dielectrics.^4,14

The exploitation of electronic conductivity in glass has also opened up a realm of opportunities in modern technology. Notably, the photoconductivity of selenium and arsenic-selenium glasses, driven by electronic conduction, has been pivotal in revolutionizing the photocopying process.

Moreover, certain glasses exhibiting electronic conductivity can dynamically switch between insulator and semiconductor states. This unique property has been applied in the development of computer memory devices, showcasing the versatility of glass in electronic applications. The photovoltaic characteristics of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, a product of its electronic conduction, also form the cornerstone of solar cell technology.¹²  

Overall, the applications of glass with electrical properties are diverse and continually expanding, driven by ongoing research. This progress highlights the pivotal role that the electronic conductivity of glass plays across multiple high-tech industries, showcasing its versatility and importance in shaping modern technology.

How can Mo-Sci help?

Meticulous calibration and consideration of glass composition are crucial for accurate and meaningful measurements of the aforementioned electrical properties. Mo-Sci specializes in creating high-performance sealing glasses suited for a wide range of applications. Our expertise extends to customizing solutions, including the production of specialized glass substrates and ultra-pure glass frit.

For inquiries on sealing solutions or custom development services, contact the Mo-Sci team today.

References and Further Reading

1. Chen, J., et al. (2017) Generation of shock lamellae and melting in rocks by lightning-induced shock waves and electrical heating. Geophysical Research Letters. doi.org/10.1002/2017GL073843
2. Jones, R. (2010) An Incomplete History and Timeline of the Electric Telegraph and the CD 731 Compromise Insulator. Available at: https://www.insulators.info/shows/handouts/cd_731.pdf
3. Al-Amoudi, M.A. (2020) Determining Dielectric Constants of Glass and Thin Film Using a Parallel Plate Capacitor. International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering Review. ISSN: 2582-6271.
4. Hsieh, C., et al. (1996) Correlation between dielectric constant and chemical structure of sodium silicate glasses. Journal of Applied Physics. doi.org/10.1063/1.363824
5. Mundher, M. (2023) Tungsten oxide effects on conductivity, dielectric parameters, and density of sodium germanium borosilicate glass. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. doi.org/10.1007/s10854-023-10280-6
6. Shaaban, S.M., et al. (2023) Influence of Copper Ions on the Structural, Mechanical, Radiation Shielding and Dielectric Properties of Borate Zinc-Fluoride Glasses. Journal of Electronic Materials. doi.org/10.1007/s11664-023-10564-x
7. Zhang, L., et al. (2020) Influence of rare earth oxides on structure, dielectric properties and viscosity of alkali-free aluminoborosilicate glasses. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2020.119886
8. Poplavko, Y.M. (2019) Chapter 7 – Dielectrics. Electronic Materials: Principles and Applied Science. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815780-0.00007-4
9. Sebastian, M.T. (2008) Chapter Two – Measurement of Microwave Dielectric Properties and Factors Affecting Them. Dielectric Materials for Wireless Communication. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-045330-9.00002-9
10. Rodriguez-Cano, R., et al. (2023) Broadband Characterization of Silicate Materials for Potential 5G/6G Applications. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2023.3256463
11. Alhaji, I.A., et al. (2021) Effects of Particle Size on the Dielectric, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Recycled Borosilicate Glass-Filled PTFE Microwave Substrates. Polymers. doi.org/10.3390/polym13152449
12. Varshneya, A.K., et al. (2019) Chapter 16 – Electronic Conduction. Fundamentals of Inorganic Glasses (Third Edition). doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816225-5.00016-X
13. Mo Sci. (2022) Applications of Thin and Thick Glass Films. Available at: https://mo-sci.com/applications-of-thin-and-thick-glass-films/ (Accessed on 17 November 2023).
14. Li, J.C., et al. (2012) Characterization of Semiconductor Surface Conductivity by Using Microscopic Four-Point Probe Technique. Physics Procedia. doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2012.03.568