Plating

Objective

The object of plating is to modify the original colour, either by changing the tone or the intensity. This will, for example, darken a piece of glass where it would otherwise be to bright; or it will modify the colour to better blend with the surrounding pieces.

A further use of plating is in conservation, where the additional detail is placed on a separate piece of glass and placed in front or back of the original.

Leads

In leading, you normally use high heart lead. This is lead with a heart of 7mm or 10mm instead of the usual 5mm. Other heights are available, of course. The 7mm heart will accommodate two 3mm pieces, but if you are using thick hand made glass, you may require the 10mm high heart.

Comparing the Arrangement

Try the glass combination with each piece on top. Often there is a difference in tone or texture. Choose the one that suits your composition best.

Cleaning

Before finally fixing the glass together, make sure they are very clean as there will be no opportunity to clean the inside again. Try to avoid finger prints on the insides while you do further work with the glass.

Sealing

Make sure the glass fits the cartoon lines. You will be sealing the two pieces of glass together, so there is no opportunity to change the shape later. There are a variety of traditional methods of sealing the glass, but the easiest modern approach is to copper foil the edges to ensure that no cement creeps between the pieces.

Fitting

You then fit the glass into the came as for thiner pieces. Where you have a combination of heart heights, you can simply slip the ends of the lower heart cames inside the leaves of the high heart leads. The differences in height are small enough that no special support is needed for the thinner glass unless you feel better with the single layers of glass supported above the work surface.

Solder Alloys, 1

Common Alloys of Solder with Melting Ranges:

% tin    % lead    % silver    Melting range

20        80                            183-275C    361-527F

30        70                            183-255C    361-491F

40        60                            183-234C    361-453F

50        50                            183-212C    361-414F

60        40                            183-188C    361-370F

63        37                            183-183C    361-361F

62        36            2              179-189C    354-372F

45        54            1              177-210C    351-410F

This shows the solder compositions of lead and tin only have a solidification temperature of 183C.  The proportions of the two metals alter the the melting point and at 63/37 the melting and solidification temperature are the same, making for excellent solder beads.

The addition of silver can reduce the solidification point but the melting point can vary significantly.  Other solder alloys can make significant alterations in the melting and solidification temperatures.

revised 3.12.24

Defining the Glass Transition Phase

We often treat glass as a simple material. However it is a very complex and as yet not fully understood material. One of the most curious aspects is the transition between plastic and solid states. This is the temperature range of glass annealing – called the glass transition by scientists. This note comes largely from "Glass Properties" produced by Schott. The text in brackets [ ] is my additional explanation.

The glass transition comprises a smooth but very large increase in the viscosity of the material. Despite the massive change in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition, the transition is not itself a phase transition  of any kind [in this case from a liquid to a solid] and involves discontinuities in thermodynamic and dynamic properties such as volume, energy, and viscosity.

Below the transition temperature range, the glassy structure does not relax in accordance with the cooling rate used. The expansion coefficient for the glassy state is roughly equivalent to that of the crystalline solid. [Thus the CoE, which is taken as an average of expansion per degree Celsius over the range of 0C to 300C, is an inadequate guide to how the glass will behave at the glass transition and higher temperatures.]

Glass is believed to exist in a kinetically locked state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic phenomenon. Time and temperature are interchangeable quantities (to some extent) when dealing with glasses.

[Viscosity shows a relatively regular change with temperature changes.] In contrast to viscosity, the thermal expansion, heat capacity, shear modulus, and many other properties of inorganic glasses show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition temperature. Any such step or kink can be used to define T_g [the transition phase of glass].  To make this definition reproducible, the cooling or heating rate must be specified.

Plating in Copperfoil

Plating is used to modify the colour, or intensity of local areas in a window or panel. Plating for leaded glass is normally putting two pieces of glass in the same came, although there was a common practice at the turn of the 19th into the 20th century to have the plate cover several pieces of leaded glass. In principle, the plating of copper foil panels is the same as for leaded glass, except there is no came to fit the glass into. So there are some variations.

An example where the fruit and leaves are all plated

Build the flat, single thickness window first. This provides a solid panel to work on. It also enables you to see whether you really need the plating, and if so the exact areas where it will be applied.

You should solder the whole panel except where the plate is to be soldered. In this/these areas just lightly tin the back, although you will have already put a solder bead over the whole of the front.

Patina the back of the panel, except where the plate is to go. Allow this to dry and clean up any spills, especially in the neighborhood of the plating.

Foil the plate with a backing to match the colour of the patina. So use copper-backed foil where the panel is in copper patina, but black-backed where the patina is black.

Tin the foil on the plate with solder. If the piece is to cross a number of the base pieces, you need to patina the tinned face that will be placed toward the viewer with the same colour patina. You need to make sure this is absolutely dry before proceeding.

Clean the plate and the base glass where the plate is to cover very well. Make sure there are no oils or tarnish on the solder, and that everything is dry.

Solder the plate to every seam that it contacts with no flux and a small amount of solder. This is to insure there is no leakage of flux - by not using any - or solder between the two pieces of glass.

Put a small amount of clear silicone between the edge of the plate and the base glass where you were not able to solder. Just lightly fill the gaps to ensure a seal against moisture and insects.
When the silicone has cured, carefully patina the plate so no fluid seeps between the glasses.

Protect the uneven back when handling by placing a soft foam pad, or a polystyrene sheet with cutouts for the plating, on the back to protect the panel from the carrying board.

Temperature Conversions

Temperature conversions from Celsius to Fahrenheit for some common temperatures in kiln forming:

Temperatures
100C  =  212F
200C  =  396F
300C  =  577F
400C  =  759F
427C  =  808F
482C  =  908F
500C  =  941F
600C  =  968F
650C  = 1123F
677C  = 1263F
760C  = 1414F
780C  = 1450F
800C  = 1487F
850C  = 1577F
900C  = 1668F
950C  = 1759F

The formula for temperature conversion is:
ºC divided by .555 plus 32 (for the freezing point of water)

Conversion of rates of advance is different (the freezing point of water does not need to be taken into account):
25C   =   45F
50C   =   91F
75C   = 136F
100C = 182F 
150C = 273F
200C = 364F
250C = 455F
300C = 545F
350C = 636F

The formula for rate of advance conversions is:
ºC divided by .555 only

Volume Calculations

When creating a casting, pot melt or other object from glass cullet or billet, you need to be sure you have a large enough volume of glass to fill the area. You can do it by measuring the volume or by calculating the weight. This note is about calculating the weight.

Filling a damed area with enough pieces of glass provides an illustration of volume control. To help make sure you have enough glass to fill the space, measure in centimetres to determine the area. For a rectangle, measure length by width in centimetres. For a circle multiply the radius by itself (radius squared) times 3.14 (pi) to get the area.

To determine the minimum volume required, multiply the area by 0.6 cm. This is the approximate thickness that glass takes up at full fuse. As the amount of time and heat that we normally give to the process is insufficient to allow the glass to fully flow, the glass will tend to be thicker in the middle when using pieces of glass rather than sheets. So you may wish to multiply the area by 0.7 cm (to make sure you have enough).

To get the weight of glass required for the space, multiply the calculated volume by 2.5 (specific gravity) to get the weight in grams. Divide by 1000 to get kilograms. If you must use pounds, multiply the kilos by 2.2, the number of pounds in a kilo.

Tack Fuse Temperature

The tack fuse range is around 730C – 780C. This will give a graduation in profile from the very sharp, almost barely laminated, to one very rounded almost flat. Choosing the right heat for the right profile is one of balancing several elements: temperature, time, speed.

Low temperature, high tack fuse

If there were no other considerations, you could go slowly up in temperature and peek in at infrequent intervals until the right profile had been achieved. However this tack fusing is happening in the devitrification range, so slow rises in temperature are not advisable.

Medium temperature, mid tack fuse

So an alternative strategy would be to go quickly through the devitrification range (700C to 760C) and soak for a bit longer above that range. However, often the desired profile may has disappeared by the time you get to 770C.

High temperature, rounded tack fuse

It would seem that you can attempt to balance the temperature, time and speed equation by firing quickly (such as 330C/hr) to your desired temperature and soak there for 10 minutes only.

To ensure you get the profile that you want you should begin to observe from at least 10C below your chosen temperature. If you do not get the profile you want, you can extend the soak until the desired effect is achieved. On a subsequent firing, you can set the top temperature a bit higher, but with the 10 minute soak and again observe. This can be repeated until the desired combination is achieved.

Each of these attempts needs to be completely recorded so that the results can be used in later firings if slightly different profiles are needed.

Also look at this entry for annealing of tack fusings.

Steel Pipe for Slumping

Steel pipe as opposed to stainless steel can be used for slumping. It will spall, so there will be a need to clean up the flakes of rust after firing. But since there is so much spalling, putting kiln wash or boron nitride is a waste of effort. Each firing will flake off any separator painted onto the metal. Cover the pipe with fibre paper instead - 0.5 mm at least.

You need to advance in temperature slowly as the pipe drains the heat from the glass where it rests. My practice is to advance the temperature at 100C/hr to 100C with a 20 minute soak, followed by 50% increases in rate to 250, and to 500 with 20 minute soaks before proceeding to the next segment. This probably is more cautious than necessary on all but the first segment.

Bubbles in Thin Pieces

Bubbles are often blown through frit castings and other thin pieces. This most results from insufficient volume of glass in the mould or on the shelf. Also the design can induce bubbles where there are thinner parts surrounded by thicker parts. As the glass softens, the surface tension of glass - from around 730 - causes it to pull up to equalise at about 6-7mm thick. This causes thinning in certain areas to allow thickening in other areas. This then leads to the risk of blowing bubbles through the glass where the glass has become thinner.

If thinner work is required, you can fire an over-sized piece to about 750C for a short time and then cut it back to the final size. If you want a flat thin sheet, you can also place the glass between two kiln shelves. You need to separate the shelves with a 3mm spacer to keep the upper shelf from coming completely down on the shelf, giving an extremely thin fragile piece of glass.

Diagnosing Fractures

What does the nature of the fracture tell about the reason for the break?

• incompatibility
• annealing
• adhesion
• splits
• lamination

Incompatibility

Fractures that follow the outline of a glass are normally indicators of incompatibility. The fracture starts at the incompatible glass and then - usually – goes directly to the nearest edge. Occasionally, the stress is not so great, so it only breaks around the offending glass without proceeding to the edge.

Annealing

A sinuous break – often with a hook at the edge – across the whole of the piece is generally an indication of one caused by an annealing stress. Inadequate annealing builds up stress within the glass that breaks through the whole piece in a lazy “S” pattern, rather than a straight line or following outlines of glass pieces.

Adhesion

Another kind of fracture occurs that is most often seen in ceramics. It is a kind of crazing that leaves the glass in granules. I call these adhesion fractures. This is indicative of the glass having stuck to the surface it is resting upon. This can be ceramic, steel or any other rigid refractory material. This comes from inadequate amounts of separator, often at high temperatures.

Split

Sometimes during slumps the piece can develop a tear or split in the lower surface without the upper breaking. This kind of split comes from heating the top of the glass more rapidly than the heat can penetrate the whole thickness. The weight of the relatively plastic upper surface overcomes the resistance of the lower surface by splitting it on the bottom face.

Lamination

Occasionally, a break will have both of the characteristics of incompatibility and annealing stress. The break is relatively straight and goes through differing colours rather than skirting them. This seems to happen most often on tack fused pieces and so is likely to be inadequate annealing. The annealing requirements of tack fused glass are much greater than flat fused glass, as the pieces are to some extent still reacting separately. If the whole piece is not given enough time for each piece to settle with the others they will contain unrelieved annealing stresses, which may have be too great to be held within the whole.