Devitrification on Ground Edges

The first element in preventing devitrification is cleaning.  Making sure all the edges of the glass are clean will help.  OK, you have cleaned the edges well after grinding. You still get detrification, so you want to know

Why do ground edges get devitrification? 

To answer this question, you need to think about how glass behaves in the kiln. As it heats up the glass expands, pushing the cut edges into the separator on the shelf. The pits caused by the grinding have not yet become fire polished.

When the glass retreats on cooling the pits in the edges of the glass, although very small, pick up some of the separator. These small particles act as the nucleation points for the crystallisation of the glass which is generally called devitrification.

The glass of a single 3mm layer retreats further on a single piece than on a 6mm piece. This rolls the devitrified glass upward onto the upper edge of the piece.

Prevention of devitrification of the ground edge is to have the pits in the glass edge finer than the particles of the separator. This is more than just washing the glass immediately after grinding to remove the glass powder from the grinding scratches.  Yes, this will reduce the chance for devitrification, but not totally prevent it.  As noted above, the pits in the glass will pick up particles of separator on expansion, giving nucleation points for the devitrification.

Further coldworking beyond the initial grinding is required to reduce the devitrification possibilities.  This involves using finer grinding bits or smoothing by hand with finer grits.  This does not have to take long, as the shape has been achieved by the grinder.

The logic of prevention is to have the glass edge smoother than the particle size of the separator, so the finer and smoother the separator, the smoother the surface of the glass edge must be.  

But my devitrified edge was on top of other glass

The follow-on question is about why devitrification occurs on ground edges that are not near the kiln shelf.  There are two elements to consider.

It is claimed that the fumes of the binder burning off can settle in the pits of the ground glass, providing those nucleation points for the glass crystalisation. The suggested solution is to vent the kiln to about 400C to allow the combustion fumes out of the kiln rather than keeping them inside the kiln.

The second and more certain element is that the grinding creates microscopic pits and fractures in the glass where the powder from grinding settles.  Almost no amount of cleaning will completely remove this residue from the tiny pits and fractures resulting from grinding. 

There are at least two solutions to this cleaning problem. Don't grind unless absolutely necessary - groze instead.  The second is to lightly cover any ground edges with clear powder frit.  You could of course consider ultrasonic cleaning or power washing, either with a dishwasher, or outdoor power washer.  Both these seem to be so completely out of proportion to the problem, that I have never used them.

Devitrification on Repeated Firing

 Devitrification is defined as the crystallisation of the glass, making it a non-vitreous substance.

Molecular level difference between vitreous and devitrified silica
from Digitalfire.com

You can see that there is not much difference between the the two states of the glass in structure, but mainly the arrangement of molecules.

The appearance of devitrification has a range of appearances from a mild smeary look through a dull surface to a crazed, crumbly aspect in severe cases. 

Mild devitrification

Medium level devitrification requiring abrasive cleaning

Causes of devitrification are related to slow changes of temperature (up or down) and most importantly nucleation points such as dust, oils, or cleaning residues. So, thorough cleaning is most important. 

Causes in repeated firings of the same piece relate to:

        Cleaning. 

It is important to thoroughly clean the piece before each subsequent firing.  Many times abrasive cleaning such as sandblasting is important to clean out impurities from the previous firing.  The resulting surface from any abrasive cleaning requires further cleaning with lots of clean water and a thorough drying with clean cloths or paper.

        Slow cooling or heating. 

Devitrification normally occurs in the range of 670⁰C to 750⁰C. This is the reason for the rapid rates of advance in this temperature range rather than other factors.  It can form both on the rise and on the fall in temperature. Slower rates in the devitrification range allow enough time for the crystallisation to begin.

        High temperatures.

Both high temperatures and long soaks can promote devitrification.  It is not just the slow rise or fall in temperature, but long periods at high temperature can lead to devitrification even though other precautions have been taken.

Changes in the composition

High temperatures and many repeated firings of the piece can lead to changes in the glass.  Some metals and fluxes are more likely than others to change composition or oxidise at extended soaks at high temperatures.  This can reduce the ability of the glass to resist devitrification.

Prevention/Correction

Prevention relates to thorough a) cleaning and b) firing rates.

All correction of devitrification relates to the modification of the surface.  If the problem is only at the surface, you can use either abrasive cleaning or the addition of fluxes to the surface, or a combination of the two. 

Where you have a mild dulling of the surface due to devitrification you can apply a flux.  This softens the surface by reducing the melting temperature of the glass and so reverses the crystallisation at the surface. The devitrification solution can be a proprietary spray such as Super Spray. Be aware that some sprays use lead particles as the flux, so are inappropriate for pieces intended to be food bearing. You can make your own devitrification solution by dissolving borax in distilled water.  When the devitrification is wide spread or deep, abrasive cleaning is required.

Abrasive cleaning can be by hand with sandpapers or diamond pads.  Be sure to keep them damp.  This keeps dust from rising, and the sanding surfaces clean for better working.  Sandblasting can be quicker, especially on uneven surfaces or where there are deep imperfections.  The surfaces resulting from abrasive cleaning need to be scrubbed clean with sufficient water, and then polished dry as for a finished piece.

It is possible to combine both these methods to be more certain of a shiny finish.  When combining, you need to do the abrasive cleaning first, then the wet cleaning and finally add the devitrification solution.

A fourth possibility is to sprinkle a fine but consistently thick layer of clear fine frit or powder over the piece.  This, when fused, provides the new surface concealing the devitrification below.  Again, this must be done at a full fuse, so it is not applicable to items you wish to remain tack fused.

However, if the devitrification has progressed to a crazed appearance, it is so deep as to be almost impossible to reverse.  The piece will also probably have developed incompatibilities. So the only real option in crazed pieces is to dispose of them.  They will not be useable in combination with any other glass. They will make any glass with which they are combined subject to devitrification and possible breakage.  These are pieces which truly cannot be cut up and re-used.

Marker Residue on Glass

Often it is essential to make marks on the glass in preparing it for the kiln. However, sometimes these marks are visible in the final product. When making marks on glass in preparation for cutting or assembly in a fused piece, a balance needs to be struck between ease of cleaning and the retention of the marks as long as necessary. Often, when the marks are in spirit based markers, the temptation is to hope the marks will fire out without any further work. This is not a sound practice.

For the most temporary of marks use erasable markers, like white board markers. These will wipe away with a paper towel, leaving no marks after firing. These may not last long enough for your purposes though.

The next set of temporary markers are the permanent markers. These are more durable and resistant to being smudged off the glass. Most often they will fire cleanly away in the firing. But there are occasions when they don't. So it is best always to remove the marks before assembly. Usually water will remove the marks with a little rubbing. If not, then a spirit based agent will be needed. Of course then you need to remove the mineral spirit residues. I normally do this with window cleaner as used by glaziers, with no additives.

The most permanent marks are done by the paint markers. These do need spirits to remove them, or they will get fired into the glass. The removal of the mineral spirits is as for the permanent markers.

This example gives a range of colours.  It is best to use contrasting colours and I use black and white almost exclusively 

Of course, the best method of keeping marks off the glass is prevention.

In so far as possible:

• Don't use permanent markers
• Don't use oil in your cutter.

Temporary markers are usually all that is necessary.

Oil is definitely not necessary, merely a convenience, in your cutter.

[revised 07/09/2016]

Scum on Ground Edges

Almost without exception, ground edges show scum after fusing.  This scummy appearance is devitrification. This is caused by the powdered glass from grinding remaining in the pits caused by the action of refining the shape of the glass with a grinder. 

The suggestion that the glass should be placed in water immediately is of course a good precaution, although addition of vinegar is less efficacious than grinder lubricant added to the soak water.  This lubricant helps to keep the glass in suspension rather than settling into the scratches and pits of the grinding marks. The vinegar, which is often recommended, will etch the glass if left to soak and  smells up the place.  A better solution to soak the glass in is a 6% solution of tri-sodium citrate.

The glass needs to be made smoother than the standard grinding bit will achieve.  Normally, a 600 grit grinding bit will be sufficient to allow a good fire polish without any devitrification. Sometimes 400 grit will be enough. You will need to step down in grit from the standard (about 100) to fine (about 200) to at least super fine (about 400) grit.  If you can find a 600 grit bit, that can be your final smoothing before cleaning and placing on your piece for fusing.  Of course, this grinding can be done by hand with wet and dry sandpaper without any great labour.

There is, of course, a more simple solution - don't grind. I rarely grind any pieces for kiln forming.  Often, this is because I am working thicker than 6mm and know the gaps will fill during the forming.  If I need to make adjustments for 6mm pieces, and I often do, I groze the edges of the glass.  This gives a much cleaner break of the glass than grinding.  Of course, the edges are not as precise as when ground, but the glass remains absent of all the scratches that harbour the devitrification.  Often the fit does not need to be precise anyway. 

When the fit does need to be precise, the parts that do not fit perfectly can be filled with the appropriate colour of powder. This should be kept as near the gap as possible and piled up only a little over the gap to compensate for the lack of mass that powder has in comparison with sheet glass.  This powder technique, of course, does not work well on tack fused pieces.  There, the grinding and smoothing needs to be pursued.

Rapid Rates of Advance to Avoid Devitrification - Kiln Forming Myths 18

Firing as fast as possible, or at least, very fast above annealing point will avoid devitrification.

Of course, this is true in one sense. Moving quickly through the devitrification range will reduce the time the glass has to crystallise – the action we call devitrification.

It will not on its own prevent devitrification.  Nowadays fusing compatible glass is formulated to resist devitrification during the firing.  However, devitrification still occurs during prolonged soaks at high temperatures, and slow rises or falls in the temperature range of 720°C to 760°C.  So you should always be trying to fire quickly through this range, whether up or down.

The contaminants that can form nucleation points for crystal growth can be oils from fingers, or cutters, residue from glass cleaner or refractory fibre papers, or even dust. 

This means the first line of defence against devitrification is cleaning.  Cleanliness is next to perfect results in kiln forming.  Use glass cleaners without additives.  In the UK, Bhole produce excellent glass cleaners.  In the USA, Spartan glass cleaner is recommended by Bullseye.  These may be better than clean water if your water supply contains a lot of minerals or additives for health purposes.

If you feel the need to make your own cleaning fluid do not use denatured alcohols such as rubbing alcohol.  They contain additives which may leave residues.  Use something like isopropyl alcohol and distilled water.

The drying of the glass should be accomplished with a thorough buffing to squeaky clean with plain paper towels or lint free cloths that have been washed without softeners in the washing.

The burn off of organic binders in fibre papers can produce enough residue to affect your glass, so it is best to keep your kiln vented until the burnout has completed – around 400°C.

To prevent dust settling on your pieces, clean and place into the kiln immediately.  If this is not possible, make sure the surface is well covered until placing in the kiln.

Diamonds and Water Use

When drilling glass with diamonds, water has three uses.

It cools the glass.  The action of grinding away the glass surface creates heat.  If this is not dissapated, the glass will break from the heat differentials caused by the drilling.

Water helps to lubricate and clear the grinding dust from between the diamonds on the drill bit.

Water keeps the glass dust that would otherwise be circulated in the air contained and easy to clean. Ground glass does not cause silicosis.  This is from a leading industrial safety expert:

"It is important to understand the difference between glass and crystalline silica because exposure outcomes are extremely different!  Glass is a silicate containing various other ingredients which have been melted and upon cooling form an amorphous, or non-crystalline structure.  While silica (SiO2) is a primary ingredient in the manufacturing of glass, when glass is formed under heat, the crystalline structure is changed to an amorphous structure and is no longer considered crystalline.  Ground glass is rarely respirable because the particle is too big.
Always use wet methods when grinding glass! Water captures the dust."

Source: http://www.gregorieglass.com/Health_Safety_Chemical.html

Float Glass

A question about sharp raised points on the corners of a square bubble plate made of window glass is the occasion to discuss some characteristics of float glass. 

It is necessary with float to find out which is the tin side and which is the air side. The tin layer of the glass produces a bloom that resembles devitrification when compressed. Put the tin side down for a slump.  If you slump with the tin side up, you will create a tin bloom by compressing the tin. If the tin is on the bottom, you will be stretching the tin and so avoid the tin bloom.

Sharp, pointed and raised corners are the result of devitrification.  Devitrification is the crystallisation of glass. Mild devitrification appears to be dirty streaks across the surface. Extreme devitrification produces a crumbling glass surface. Raised, sharp corners are the result of intermediate devitrification. The tin side does not protect against devitrification.  It does provide a separating action when against the shelf, although kiln wash is still needed.  Float glass devitrifies easily. I have only ever been able to get two firings without devitrification.

Cleaning is of great importance in avoiding devitrification. Clean well with only a little detergent, rinse and then polish dry with paper towels. Any residues left on the surface will promote devitrification.

A general way of reducing sharp corners is to nip or round the corners with diamond pads. I nip the corners - it is quicker and does not leave any microscopic pits for devitrification formation.

Paint, stains and enamels will interact with the tin to produce variants of the colours.  Stains most often become darker than when put on the air side. Powder, frit and mica will not usually react to the tin.

Remember, float glass is not manufactured to be a kiln forming glass.  You will always be at risk of devitrification.

Cleaning Glass Before Painting

If your glass is not really clean, you can get gaps in the paint line. You may also have areas where the paint beads up rather than flows evenly.

You need to clean as best as possible first. Then just before painting you can use a dilute solution of the paint to scrub all over the glass with your finger or other firm material. Wipe any residue off with a paper towel and you will find that the prepared paint will flow evenly onto the glass.

Cleaning

A lot of devitrification resembles dirty smears over the glass that will not clean away. This kind of devitrification results from inadequate cleaning.

The glass needs to be made “squeaky clean”. The glass needs to be free of dust, oils and minerals before firing. An initial wash of the glass with a minimum amount of liquid soap will dispose of the dust and oils. However it may leave behind minerals and additives from the soap and water, so a rinse in clean water followed by a polishing with unprinted paper towels or lint free cloths washed without softeners. As the glass dries you may very well hear the squeak of glass that is well polished to dry.

If there are still residues of labels or markers, use of a spirit may be required to remove these marks. Then the glass will have to be cleaned again in the normal way to remove the residues from the spirits.

If you are fortunate to be in an area with very few minerals in the water, you will not have to take as many precautions as those in areas with hard water. If you have hard water, you may need to think about using distilled water for the final rinse if you have streaks of devitrification after the standard cleaning process. The use of spirits is not necessary. The glass still needs to be polished dry with unprinted paper or dedicated towels.

An alternative (that I use most often) is to use a window cleaner without additives, such as supplied by glaziers. This avoids the local water supply, and most often is sufficient to remove dust and oils.

Cleaning Frit and Powder

If you make your own fine frit and powder, make sure it is clean to avoid black specks, or a grey appearance caused by metal dust and fragments.

Clean the glass you are going to break up before you start the process.

Use mild steel or other magnetic metal to break up the glass, or protect the glass from the breaking tools with layers of paper, plastic, cloth or combinations of these materials.

Then with a powerful magnet remove any metal residue from the frit and powder. The magnet will need to be passed over and through the glass particles a number of times, cleaning the magnet after each pass. To ease the cleaning you may wish to put the magnet in a plastic bag. Then move the bag over the waste bin and remove the magnet. The particles fall into the bin.

Do not use stainless steel to break up the glass as it will not be attracted to the magnet. Stainless steel particles will result in the same discolouration as if you left the glass uncleaned.

Fire Polishing Jewellery

Sometimes jewellery pieces come out of the kiln with imperfections that need to be ground away.

You can do a quick shaping on the conventional grinder and then fire polish. However, you will not get a fire polish at a low enough temperature to avoid distorting the piece. The way to get a fire polished surface or edge is to make the edge less rough before putting the glass into the kiln.

After you shape the pieces on the grinder, make sure you scrub them well to remove any particles created by the grinding process. Dry them and then cover the rough areas with a white paint marker. This will indicate when you have removed the scratches caused by the previous rougher grinding.

Get out your wet and dry sandpapers. Start with the most coarse (about 200) and work the ground area until the paint has been removed. Keep the sandpaper and the area being worked damp. When all the white paint has been sanded away, wash, dry, paint and go to the the next finer grit. Repeat this with progressively finer grits – normally use the grit number twice the previous grit (larger numbers indicate finer grits).

Normally, going down to 400 or 600 grit will be enough to enable a fire polish at a low enough temperature to avoid distortion of your piece. This heat range will be at a low temperature tack fuse.

This smoothing process does not take very long and is much cheaper than buying several finer grinding bits - most grinder bits are 60 to 80 grit, although it is possible to get bits up to 600 grit.

Sticky Labels

There are a number of products to help get the label adhesive off the glass. However you need to make sure you get the product residues off the glass before firing.

A simple and usually effective method is pull label off, use white spirit or turpentine substitutes with a plastic kitchen scrubber or fine brass wire brush to remove the adhesive. Then clean up with alcohol or methylated spirits, followed by good cleaning with your normal cleaning method, as here.

Bottle slumping

Results

Devitrification is a major problem on bottle slumping. Some means of reducing the problem are

• clean labels off thoroughly
• remove all adhesives
• scrub the whole bottle and polish dry
• apply a devitrification spray before firing.
• Spend as little time in the devitrification range (700C – 750C) as possible
• Vent the kiln up to 540C if you are using fibre papers
• sandblast off the devitrification and fire again if the devit is slight
• in severe cases of devitrification, throw the bottle away.

Champagne and large bottles of sparkling wine split easily due to the differences in thicknesses. Firing of these needs to be very slow until you get past 715C.

Bottles with printed labels need particular care. The enamels used in the printing may contain lead and any other elements in the paint may contaminate your kiln.

.

Bottle Slumping

Firing

The amount of slump you want will determine the top temperature combined with the rate of advance.

You have the choice of firing slow and low or fast and high. If you choose the former, you can also choose a lower final temperature. As a starting point for considering your firing schedule you can assume that bottle glass is very similar to float glass. This means that you can start with an annealing temperature of about 548C and a softening point of 720C. The strain point is around 510C, so all the annealing needs to be finished by that temperature.

Bottle glass is fairly robust, so an initial rise of 150C/hr to 600C may be slow enough, considering the differences in thickness that most bottles exhibit and then faster to your top temperature. A little experimentation is required. The minimum temperature required for a slump will be around 720C. The slumping temperature you choose depends on how fast you want to achieve your slump and how flat you want the result to be. Slow slumps can be done at around 720C, but if you want faster or flatter you need to consider temperatures around 770 -790C. You will need to observe to determine what temperatures are best for your desired results.

Annealing needs to be done carefully for two reasons. You do not know how consistently the glass has been made and you have a range of thicknesses involved in the now slumped piece. So it is safest to assume the piece is now about 20 mm thick. This would require a 3 hours soak at 550C; an initial annealing cool rate of 25 C/hr to 495C; a secondary cool rate of 45C/hr to 440; and a final cooling rate of 150C/hr to around 50C. If the bottles are clear or light enough, you should do a stress test on them by placing the bottle between polarised filters and over a light source. This will tell you if you have annealed properly.

You also need to consider whether you can fire bottles from different brands of drink and different parts of the world together. Some say don't try it. Others say there is so little variation in glass the world over that careful annealing will compensate for the differences. Experimentation is the only way that you will be able to tell.

Allow a day after firing before any cleaning or washing of the bottles is done.

Bottle Slumping

There are four major considerations in bottle slumping: cleaning, placing, firing, results.

Cleaning

A major consideration in slumping bottles is the cleaning required. This requires a lot of time, as everything has to be clean inside and out.

Labels and the glue attaching them must be cleaned off. The interior needs to be clean. And the bottle needs to be dry before being placed in the kiln.

Soaking first helps the cleaning process. If you are doing large numbers you will need to find large containers that you can leave the bottles in to soak for a couple of days. For small numbers, a few bottles soaking in a bucket of soapy water will do. The bottles should be upright to allow the internal residues to float to the top. After a few days the labels should have fallen off and the internal deposits floated to the top or easily washed out. Screen or plug the sink to be able to remove the residues from the sink before it gets into the drain. Then you can proceed to rinse and clean the bottles.

The bottles will need to be wiped free of the glues used to stick the labels to the bottles.  Any glue residue left on the bottle will show up on the finished piece, usually as devitrification. If the glue or label has not come off with the cold water and soap soak, you can soak them in very hot water. You can then use a variety of solvents to remove the most persistent adhesives.

For the difficult internal deposits, you can use one or two short lengths of small chain and slosh that around with water. The chain used for hanging small stained glass panels is ideal.

As you can see the cleaning process is lengthy and can be time consuming. So you might want to see if you can get new bottles at a reasonable price. Home brew shops may have bottles they are willing to dispose of. Bottling plants may also have supplies of bottles. New bottles will greatly reduce the labour of bottle slumping, although it does not fit the re-cycling ethos that brings people to bottle slumping in the first place.

Silicone Removal

Removing silicone residues from glass is difficult as silicone combines with the surface molecules of the glass.

The best advice seems to use a very sharp flat blade similar to a paint scraper. There is a tool which holds razor blades or Stanley knife blades which is suitable. Keep the blade as near parallel to the glass surface as possible. Take thin slices of the silicone away at each pass. Keep the blade free from nicks. Change the blade frequently. You may be able to remove almost all the silicone, depending on the smoothness of the glass surface, in this way.

However when you have removed as much as possible by the mechanical means, you may need to use a chemical process to get rid of the remaining silicone. Silicone dissolvers are available from most do-it-yourself shops. Make sure you use them in accordance with the instructions as they can be mildly toxic.

Removing Cement

Sometimes life gets in the way and a partially cemented panel is left for days. When you come back to it the lead light cement is hard. Removal requires a material hard enough to shift the cement but not cut into or damage the lead or glass.

The best tool is a rectangular stick of hard wood. It should be at least 6 mm thick to stand up to the pressures of cleaning, but not much more than 12 mm - 15 mm wide to enable you to get into corners. It should be 200 mm – 250 mm long for ease of handling. Shape one end in a chisel or wedge shape. I prefer the wedge shape, but the chisel shape can be re-formed more quickly than the wedge because there is only one edge.

Use the stick by running it along the lead with some downward force, but remember you can break the glass with too much pressure. This should break the adhesion between the cement and the glass. To get all the cement off the glass, you will need to use the stick in localised areas almost as a kind of pick. This is the kind of tool that I use in conjunction with a stiff brush for the final clean up of each panel before polishing.

Glass Stains

A lot of people want to use old window glass – for recycling reasons, for the character of the older glass or because it is cheap or free. This glass often has stains or the appearance of corrosion or etching from age or storage conditions. To remove these blemishes you should start from the least aggressive method and work your way through the more aggressive methods until you find one that achieves the cleanliness you desire.


When using these methods appropriate breathing and hand protection are a requirement. 

Surface deposits

The first method is to wash the glass in water with a bit of crème cleaner. Place the glass flat on a work bench and scrub it with a brush containing the water and cleaner. Rinse and dry. This may be all that is needed.

More persistent stains require chemicals. Use rubber gloves for this kind of process. Soak the glass in a dilute (5-10%) solution of lye. This is also known as caustic soda. Chemically it is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). After the soak wipe with a disposable towel and dip it into a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (5-10% again) or vinegar to neutralise the caustic soda. Wipe the glass with a towel and rinse with plain water and polish dry.

Metallic stains or iridescence and etched surfaces

If the blemishes are more than surface deposits, more aggressive methods are required. The metallic-like stains and iridescence are usually evidence of the corrosion of the surface of the glass. These and any etching require grinding and polishing.

You should start with a polishing process to determine if that will be sufficient to bring clarity back to the glass. The use of an optical polishing material such as cerium oxide paste and a felt polishing head is often enough. Ensure that you do not let the cerium oxide get any drier than a paste to avoid localised heating and therefore breakage of the glass. Rinse the glass in clean water and polish dry.

If this does not remove enough of the surface to provide the desired clarity of the glass you can try either using pumice or jeweller's rouge, or dilute hydrofluoric acid.

Hydrofluoric acid used in a 10% or less solution will remove the surface of the glass, so eliminating the evidence of corrosion. It will even out, but not eliminate, the evidence of any etching. The disadvantage to this method is the risks associated with such a dangerous chemical. There is within this note on acid etching a door panel some advice on safety.

If you decide to avoid the hydrofluoric acid method, you can use mild abrasives such as jeweller's rouge or pumice with water and a felt polishing head. Once you have ground the whole of the surface, you need to wash it very thoroughly in clean water. Then change the felt head and go to cerium oxide to provide the optical finish.

Note:

All the dilutions and solutions suggested here are with water.

This note assumes the glass has had any paint already removed. For a method of removing house paint see this tip.

Negative assembly

To get a crisp design finish to a fused piece especially with thin elements like stringers it is often recommended to fire upside-down. This means that the bubbles move toward the final bottom of the piece rather than rising and disturbing the design on the top.

Assemble the piece on your workbench as usual on top, but use a toothpick or small brush to dab some GlasTac or other glue near the two ends of each piece. Let it dry overnight and then carefully flip the whole arrangement upside down onto the kiln shelf.

If you don't like the glue and flip over technique you can try another. Draw your design onto Thinfire shelf paper in negative with a graphite pencil. If you have a strong light source you can draw on the reverse (printed) side and trace the negative onto the upper face of the Thinfire. Then assemble your pieces upside-down on the shelf. You can assemble the whole in the kiln and there is no need for glue.

When fired, clean the piece thoroughly and decide whether you want that texture or a smoother surface. If you want the smoother surface, put in the kiln for a fire polish. This is often known as “flip and fire.”

Residues

Sometimes a white residue appears alongside the solder bead sometime after a piece is finished, covered in patina, and waxed. This seems to have two causes.

First - Residual acid

As there is a possibility of some acid remaining on the piece, rinse with a bit of bicarbonate of soda added to the water. This will neutralise the acids from the flux and patina that may still be lurking under the foil and solder beads. If you get a frothing while cleaning with the soda, you will know there is still acid present. Wash - rather than scrub - those areas again with the water and soda solution until there is no foaming.

Second - Trapped moisture

Moisture can also produce this as it allows minerals to migrate from under the solder seams. The advice seems to centre on cleaning. First do not use much soap in the initial cleaning solution. After rinsing ensure the piece is completely dry by setting it aside in a warm dry place for a day or two before waxing or sealing.

Those that use paste waxes seem to have less difficulty than those who use thin or spray on waxes. The heavier waxes seem to seal any moisture within the structure. The moisture seems to be able to migrate through the thinner waxes. It is not optimum to have moisture sealed within the panel, as it will eventually come through the wax as it ages.

So it seems the best long term result will be achieved by ensuring everything is absolutely acid free and completely dry before waxing.