Diagnosing Slump fractures

Once you have an initial idea of the source of the problem, think about it.  Test it against the evidence.  Is there enough evidence to make a call?  Make sure you have considered alternative explanations.  It is just too easy to make a snap decision about causes in low temperature processes.  The source of breaks in slumping are most often complex and stem from interrelated factors.

I give you an example of the difficulties of diagnosing a slumping break.

On a Facebook group a person showed the break of a single layer on a cyclone mould.  Others commented the same had happened to them.

Picture credit: Esther Mulvihill Pickens

Possible causes suggested on Facebook included:

• Thermal shock on the way up
• Thermal shock on the way down
• Too large on the mould and broke due to differential contraction
• Too many holds on the way up
• Too hot
• Too thin
• Follow the CPI programme
• Glass extending over the sides

Some of these suggestions were of general applicability, some in relation to the state of the broken glass.

The suggestions did not include:

• Cause of the rounded dots at the bottom of the mould.
• A cause for the state of the flat piece off the mould (it appears sharp edged.  Does it show some forming already?).
• The cause for the location of the fully formed remaining glass.
• The effect of the location of the mould and glass in the kiln.
• The consequences of a short soak at top temperature. 
• Is the kiln running hotter than most (1290ºF/698ºC for 10 minutes at top temperature was used)?

Of course, it is difficult to diagnose a problem from just one picture. It is difficult even with many pictures. And so, without handling the object, only suggestions can be made.

But….

You must spend enough time examining the piece with whatever other information is available to make specific suggestions.  The first thought may not consider all the factors.  Consider what kinds of causes there are for breaks during or after slumping.

More close inspection reveals the rounded edges of the break.  That supports the idea that the temperature was too high. It also supports the diagnosis that the break occurred on the heat up.

The edges of the piece that has fallen off the mould, and now rests on the shelf, seem to be square or sharp. This shows the extent of the difference of temperature between shelf and top of the mould – less than 100mm/4 inches.  Also, how small the differences in temperature are between slump and tack.  The extent of difference in fusing does depend on how high in the kiln the mould is placed.  That is demonstrated here by the different elevation of the two pieces. 

The conformation of the glass to the mould is complete.  This supports the diagnosis of the break occurring early in the firing, and certainly before the slump was complete.  These pieces will not fit together.  So, even if the edges were sharp the fact they will not fit together shows they conformed independently to the mould surface.  Therefore, the break was before forming temperature was reached.

The glass hangs over the mould edges on only three sides and at an angle.  This indicates the cause of the overhang was the break.  Not the reverse. An overhang at the beginning of the slump is likely to be even.

The piece on the floor of the kiln combined with the movement of the glass toward the back gives an indication that the origin of the break is at the front.  This relates to uneven temperatures and to the placement of the mould.

No one mentioned the placement of the mould and glass at the back of the kiln.  This will have an effect on scheduling.  The mould and glass are very large in relation to the kiln.  There is little space between the glass on the mould and the walls of the kiln.  Also, the mould is placed asymmetrically in the kiln – very close on three sides.  This will cause uneven heating in any kiln.  To have a successful firing of glass on this mould in this kiln will require radically different schedules to that for a centrally placed mould that is moderate for the size of the kiln.

The large size (relative to the kiln) and the asymmetrical placing are the causes of the break, in my opinion.  I admit that it took me several looks to realise the placement was a key cause of the break.

So, the generalised comments about thermal shock are correct, but not as to the cause of that shock.  The kiln will be hotter in the central part and cooler at the corners.  This is true of all rectangular kilns.  The important thing is to learn how to cope with these temperature differences.

Slow firings to low temperatures with long soaks are the three important elements.  These make up the heat work of the kiln. Applying this to a schedule means:

• slow ramp up rates – as little as one half the recommended rates for centrally placed moulds that are moderately sized in relation to the kiln.
• Low temperatures present lesser risks to the control of the outcome of the firing.  Determining the lower temperature possible requires peeking into the kiln to monitor the progress of the firing.
• Long soaks combined with low temperatures get the kilnforming done with minimal marking of the underside.  Low temperature soaks - in excess of 30 minutes - are required to minimise the marking.  Observation of the slump will be necessary to determine when it is complete.

My suggestions for the causes of other elements are:

·        Cause of the rounded dots at the bottom of the mould.

The temperature was too high. 698ºC/1290ºF is much hotter than needed for a slump. It was hot enough to round edges and small shards of glass.  Which shows excessive heat was received by the glass.

·        A cause for the state of the flat piece off the mould (it appears sharp edged. Does it show some forming already?)

The soak of 10 minutes was too short for the temperature in the kiln to equalise from top to bottom.  The glass on the shelf may not have reached 650ºC/1200ºF with such a short soak.

·        The cause for the location of the fully formed remaining glass.

The glass broke and was forced apart by the size of the expansion differences within the glass.  The movement of a piece at the front of the mould combined with the rearward and side movement of the glass indicate the origin of the break was at the front.  The distance apart shows the amount of force, and so the degree of reduction in the ramp rate required to fire this successfully.

·        The effect of the location of the mould and glass in the back of the kiln has already been discussed.

·         The consequences of a short soak at top temperature.

A high temperature is often considered necessary to pick up all the detail in moulds, whether slump or texture moulds.  The same effect can be achieved at lower temperatures with longer soaks.  The results of this strategy are fewer mould marks on the bottom of the work.

·        Is the kiln running hotter than most (Used 1290F/698C for 10 minutes at top temperature)?

This is one that cannot be answered other than by experiments carried out by the owner of the kiln.  Look at the Bullseye Tech Note #1 Knowing your Kiln for methods of testing temperatures. 

In short:

Diagnosis of slumping breaks is more complex than it appears at first.

More information is available in the eBook Low Temperature Kilnforming, an Evidence Based Approach to Scheduling.

This is available from Bullseye or Etsy

Draping Different Thicknesses and Sizes

Scheduling for different sizes and thicknesses of drapes requires schedules specific to these factors in addition to observing the progress of the drape.

Bob Leatherbarrow's research shows 6mm drapes more slowly than 3mm. It seems the thicker glass takes longer to begin the slump.  Glass behaves in a similar way for a drape.  My experience of draping 6mm/0.25” and 3mm/0.125” in the same firing confirms that 6mm takes longer.  Or, it needs a higher temperature.  I know this goes against common sense, but tests and experience show it to be true.

If you try to drape 3mm/0.125” and 6mm/0.25” pieces at the same time, the 3mm will reach the desired shape before the 6mm. You then have the choice of an under draped 6mm piece or an over draped 3mm piece.  This indicates that draping different thicknesses in the same firing will be unsuccessful.  To a lesser extent, the size of the drape will influence the speed of the drop.  So, you are unlikely to achieve completely desirable results with significantly different sizes of drape in the same firing either.

Observation is essential in all draping operations. You cannot know how long it will take for a piece to drape or drop to your requirements.  To be sure of your result you need to observe the progress of the drape.  There is rarely a safety net of a form to drape onto as in slumping.  To observe, set your top temperature with a long soak/hold.  Start peeking at frequent intervals from the time top temperature is reached.  

When the glass has reached the desired shape, advance to the next segment.  Your controller manual will give you instructions on how to do that.

Different thickness and sizes of glass require different firing conditions.

Slumping and Annealing bottles

"Can a tack fuse schedule for fusing glass can be used to slump bottles?"

It may be that this person does not have the confidence to write a new schedule.  They may wish to use an existing schedule for another purpose. The short answer is “Although a Bullseye or Oceanside tack fuse temperature will be high enough to slump bottles, they are not suitable for annealing”.  There are reasons for this. 

The softening point of float glass, which is similar to bottle glass, is 720ºC/1330ºF.  Slumping would normally be done at about 20ºC/36ºF above this. You also need a slumping hold at this temperature much longer than a tack fuse schedule would use.

if you use a tack fuse schedule for a fusing glass, your annealing will be inadequate. Bottle and float glass tend to have an annealing point of around 540ºC/1005ºF. An annealing for fusing glass will be between 515ºC/960ºF and 482ºC/900ºF.  This is likely to be too low an annealing point for bottles.  Also, the annealing soak is likely to be too short. Slumped bottles are very thick at the base where it folds over the cylinder of the bottle.  This requires a longer anneal soak and slower cool than a schedule for a tack fuse of fusing glass.

Checking for stress in the completed work is normal.  It is essential for your finished bottle if you use a tack fuse to fire it.

 

Schedules should be devised for the glass and layup of each piece. Transferring a schedule for fusing to bottle glass is unlikely to be successful.

Slumping contrasting colours and styles

 A question about why a tack fused 6mm/0.25” piece of combined dense white and black in a slump firing broke has been raised.  Other pieces of black and other whites also tack fused in the same firing did not break.

"Living in the Grey" Stephen Richard

Contrasting colours

Combining the most viscous and the least viscous of bullseye glasses - dense white and black - is a challenge.  The survival of other pieces in the firing with slightly less viscous white give an indication.  Their survival shows that the anneal and cooling conditions were too short and fast for the broken piece. 

It may be worth checking how much stress is in the surviving pieces.  It may not be possible directly on these fired pieces. There is a way.  Mock up the black and white in the same way as the surviving pieces.  Put this on a larger clear piece and fire in the normal way. This enables you to see stress in opalescent layups. If there is any, it is revealed on the clear by using polarising filters. 

The usual recommendation is to anneal and cool as for twice the thickness was followed in this firing.  It is important to anneal and cool more conservatively in cases of contrasting colours. Strongly contrasting colours and styles (low viscosity transparent and high viscosity white opalescent) require more time at annealing and need slower cooling.  I do that by using a schedule for one layer thicker than calculated.  In this case, as for 15mm/0.61” (two tack layers needs firing as for four tack layers, plus one extra for the high and low viscosity combination).

Viscosity

The reasons for this are viscosity:  

·        Annealing is done at a temperature that achieves a viscosity of around 10^13.4 poise. It can be done in a range from there toward the strain point of 10^14.5 poise.  Below the strain point temperature (which is determined by the viscosity), no annealing can occur.  The glass is too stiff.  The closer to the strain point that the annealing is done, the more time is required at the annealing temperature.

·        The annealing of Bullseye is already being done in the lower range of viscosities. It is possible the viscosity of the white is so high as to be difficult to anneal with the usual length of soak.

·        Although I do not know the exact viscosities of dense white and soft black at the annealing temperature, it is known white has a higher viscosity than the black.  The means to achieve less stress in the glass is to hold at the annealing temperature longer than normal.  A cooling schedule related to the length of the anneal hold is needed.  This information can be obtained from the Bullseye chart for annealing thick glass.  The rates and times apply to all soda lime glass, which is what fusing glass is. Only the temperatures need to be changed to suit the characteristics of your glass.

Slumping

The slumping of this combination of high and low viscosity glasses requires more care too.  My research has shown that the most stress-free result in slumping is achieved by firing as for one layer thicker than that used for the fuse firing.  For a tack fuse, this means firing for twice the thickness, plus one more layer for contrasting colour and style.  Then schedule the slump by adding another layer to the thickness.  This means scheduling as for 19mm/0.75"instead of as for 12mm/0.5”.  This is to account for profile, contrasting colours, and stress from slumping.  This is about three times the actual height of the piece.  

Slumping tack fused pieces of contrasting colours requires very cautious firing schedules.  These longer schedules need to have a justification.  It is not enough to add more time or slow the cooling just in case.  Excessively long anneal soaks, and slow cools can create another set of problems. 

More viscous glass needs more time at the annealing soak to an even distribution of temperature between the more and less viscous glasses.

More information about other low temperature processes can be found in my eBook Low Temperature Kilnforming.  Available from Bullseye and Etsy  

Enlargement without Maths

 Setting out an enlargement grid can be done without the mathematics of ratios.  It uses an old method of estimated interval size and angles relating to the ends of the estimation and the width of the design.  This gives the method in simple images.

     Start with your original design

Draw line at a shallow angle from one corner

Determine number of grid lines (say 10) along the bottom edge.  Choose a length approximately the size needed for the grid.  Mark out the number of divisions with dividers or compass on that slope.

Connect the final mark with the corner at the end of the line started on.  Place a right angle on that line.

   Fix a long straight edge under that right angle and fix it so it does not move

·        Transfer the marks on the sloped line to the edge of the image.

This gives ten equal divisions. Adjust the divider opening to the width of the division.

Use dividers with this opening to transfer the division size to the other edge.

Do this on all four edges if a rectangle.

Do the same process for the enlarged size.

Draw a slope

Estimate the size of the division.  Mark that estimate on the slope as for the original design.  Fix a right angle between the end of the slope marks and the corner of the design.  Fix the straight edge and mark off the divisions on the enlarged size.  Transfer these divisions with the new division opening of the dividers

Draw the grid.

Note where the design crosses the grid lines. Transfer marks onto the enlarged grid proportionally.  To avoid confusion, mark one line in at a time.

An intersection of the design line two thirds up the design grid vertical gets a mark two thirds up the corresponding enlarged vertical.  The same with horizontal grid lines.  Connect the dots one line at a time in pencil.  They can be altered later and erased once the final lines are inked in.

 

Enlarging Designs by Hand

Not everyone has easy access to enlarging copiers.  Even when they are available, large enlargement ratios produce distortions.  This presents a dilemma when a big enlargement is needed.  Is it necessary to redraw the whole design at a larger scale?  There is a way to enlarge a design without machines or needing to redraw the whole.  This is a description of how it can be done.

The old fashioned way to enlarge an image is to grid the smaller original.  This grid is normally made in squares of convenient size.  The grid size does not have to fit evenly into the dimensions of the original.  It is easier if the longest side has a size of grid that fits evenly into it.  This probably means there will be an uneven fit of the square grid on the other dimension.  This is not a big problem. 

The size of the grid is related to the amount of detail.  More detailed original images need smaller squares than images with less detail.  Detailed images may require a 1cm/0.375” square grid or less.  This is to ensure all the detail is included in the enlarged image.  A less detailed original may only need a 2.5cm/1.0” grid.

Also, bigger enlargements require more squares on the original than smaller enlargements.  If you are enlarging more than three times, you should be looking toward smaller squares for the grid.  This allows you to maintain the curves and angles more easily on the enlarged copy.  Smaller enlargements can have a larger grid size.  The relevance of the grid size becomes apparent when you set out the enlarged grid.

It is useful to use a set of dividers to ensure the repeated grid size is set out on the boundaries of the original image size.  Once set, the distance between the two points of the dividers remains constant as you “walk” them along the boundaries.  If you mark all four sides of the image with the dividers, you only need a straight edge to draw the grid lines.  I draw the lines in pencil. Then if I make any mistakes, I can erase the lines and set new ones.

On another piece of paper set out the new enlarged size boundaries.  If you have set the boundaries at the correct size relative to the original, the new grid should fit evenly into the long dimension.  Multiply the grid size on the original by the enlargement ratio.  This gives you the size of the enlargement grid.  Set your dividers to this and mark off the enlarged grid.

In fact, most of the time, the difference between the final enlarged and the original size determines the enlargement ratio.  To get this ratio, divide the enlarged size by the original size to get the ratio.  This ratio needs to be applied to the new grid size.  If it does not fit well, adjust the dividers to the required size and mark the length again.

Example:

·        The approved design is 10 by 15cm/ 4” by 6”

·        The final size is to be 60 by 91.5cm/ 24” by 36” (assuming your design is in the same proportions as the final size).

·        Assuming your design is of moderate detail, squares of 1cm/ 0.39” might be enough to capture the detail.  For more detail, smaller squares would be required.

·        To determine the size of the squares in the full size design, divide the final size by the design size.  I prefer to use the bottom side for this calculation, but either side will work. The bottom side of the full size is 60cm, and the design is 10cm. The division shows that the squares on the full size need to be in a ratio of 1:6.0. This means the squares on the full size need to be 6.0cm/ 2.4”.

·        If this appears to be too large a grid, the squares can be divided to capture more detail.

 

The next blog post will show how to divide the design and full size without using maths at all.

Having marked the edges of the design with the grid sizes, draw the grid across the design.  Do this in pencil, so the grid lines can be erased when the enlargement is completed. This will give intersections between the design lines and both the grids. 

Enlarging involves marking these intersections on the full size grid in proportional locations.  E.g., if on the design the intersection on the grid line is 2/3 up the grid square.  On the large one mark it also 2/3 up on the corresponding square. Do one line at a time to avoid confusion.  When as much of the line intersections as you want for that element are transferred, draw the line in on the full size.  There will need to be some adjustment when finished, so use a pencil for all these operations.

When satisfied with the look of the full size, ink in the lines and erase the grid and any unwanted lines. You now have a full size cartoon to work with. 

Manually enlarging a design is most useful when you do not have access to machines, and when the enlargement is more than two times.  Machines distort the lines at high magnifications and require checking and often redrawing of edges and various elements anyway.

Is there a best separator?

 Is there a best separator?

Kilnforming separators

Separators for kiln forming come in various forms. Chemicals, liquids, sprays, refractory fibre paper, kiln wash, and others I suppose. Which is best?  Each separator has its uses. No one is useful in all circumstances.  Some will be best for one circumstance and others for another.

Boron nitride

Boron nitride (BN) is a high temperature lubricant. It can be sprayed or brushed onto the mould. It adheres to smooth non-absorbent surfaces.  BN is among the most expensive of separators for glass. It seems most useful on detailed, texture and casting moulds. BN is often recommended for steel moulds as it adheres to it better than kiln wash.  Although kiln wash will work as a separator on steel, boron nitride is easier to apply.  Various conditions apply to its use. 

Kiln wash

Kiln wash works well on slightly absorbent surfaces – ceramic moulds, and shelves, for example. It is the least expensive form of separator.  It is shipped as a powder to which five parts water is added to one of the powder.  This makes a liquid that can be applied to any appropriate surface.  It can be sprayed or brushed. The mix can be with less water on very absorbent surfaces, showing some of its flexibility. 

Almost all kiln washes contain kaolin which helps keep the alumina hydrate in suspension.  But most importantly, allows the solution to be applied evenly.  However, the same kaolin also slowly changes to a crystalline substance by 900ºC/ 1650º that sticks to glass. It needs to be re-applied after every full fuse.

Refractory fibre paper

Shelf paper works well on flat surfaces and simple moulds.  It is a moderately priced separator.  Two of the popular trade names are Papyros and Thinfire.  They both contain alumina hydrate but with different binders.  They provide a smooth surface for the shelf and cylindrical shapes. They are not so good at separating glass from irregular surfaces and incised details.  The shelf paper disintegrates after firing. Although it can sometimes be used several times if undisturbed.  The resulting powder is an irritant and should be disposed of carefully.

There are thicker refractory fibre papers.  These normally range from 0.5mm to 6mm.  Thicker versions are called blanket.  These have the same characteristics as shelf papers, although coarser.  They also do not use binders to keep them together.  These are most useful in forming moulds and insulating glass from rapid temperature changes.

 

The general statement is that there is not one separator that is best in all circumstances.  Each has its strengths.  Knowledge of the objective of the firing and its conditions will help in choosing the right one.

Kiln wash

People seem to avoid kiln wash. Some reasons are:

• It is messy.
• It requires effort to renew. 
• It needs drying between coats.
• It needs drying before firing anything on it.  
• It has lots of visible brush marks. 
• It must be renewed frequently.  
• It is dangerous.

These notes are to clarify some misconceptions about kiln wash use. Kiln wash is an economical glass separator that requires a little effort to use, but is effective and has less health risks than other separators.  Kiln wash is a separator, not a series of layers built up thickly. Some characteristics to consider in its use.

Thickly applied kiln wash on a mould

The Mix

You mix the powder with water.  Use a thin mix - 1:5 by volume.  There are various descriptions of the thickness of the mix.  Adhering to the 1:5 mix will ensure the right runniness of it.  The mix must be frequently agitated to keep the kiln wash in suspension while you are applying it.  If you do not ensure all the kiln wash is in suspension, you will not be applying enough separator.

Application

Use a soft bristled brush such as a hake or broad squirrel brush to let kiln wash mix flow onto the shelf or mould.  Hold the brush almost vertically and allow the kiln wash to flow off the brush while only lightly touching the shelf with the bristles.  Apply four thin layers in all directions – up/down, horizontal, and the two diagonals - to ensure coverage. 

Gentle application of kiln wash with a hake brush

Drying

No drying between coats is advisable or necessary.  The addition of a wet coat over the dry will wet the previous layer(s) and will lead to clumping.  It is not like painting wooden table that requires drying between coats.  For kiln wash all the coats should be applied without any drying between the directions of brushing.  View this as applying one coat.  And that is all that is needed.

Once the surface has a dull look, it is ready to use, even though not thoroughly dry.  At this stage, or later, you can remove any brush marks.  Place a sheet of paper over the kiln wash.  Smooth it by moving the paper with the palm of your hand over the surface.  Gently remove any dust.

Firing a newly kiln washed shelf or mould with the glass on top will dry the kiln wash before glass is soft enough to stick to it.

Removal

It is advisable to remove the kiln wash once it has been fired to full fuse.  The kaolin in the kiln wash becomes increasingly crystalline as the temperature rises. It is fully crystalline at about 900ºC/1650ºF. At the first full fuse it does not stick to transparent, but often to some opalescent glass. On the second full fuse the kiln wash sticks to all the glass.  At tack fuse temperatures, the kaolin has not fully crystallised, and several firings can be achieved without difficulty.  Experience will show how many firings - at your tack fuse temperature – are possible.

Re-coating

Painting over used dry kiln wash has the same difficulty of clumping as when initially applying.  It is also easier to remove kiln wash that has been fired only a few times. Kiln wash fired to full fuse several times requires much more effort than one fired to full fuse once.

Safety

Kiln wash contains alumina hydrate and most commonly kaolin. The powdered forms of these are irritants, not health hazards.  It is advisable to protect yourself and your work area.  Wear a dust mask when removing the dry kiln wash.  Do this is a well ventilated area or outside to reduce the dust in your studio. Dispose of the used kiln wash in sealed bags to avoid spreading the dust during refuse operations.

Fibre Paper Re-use in Kiln Carving

“I would like to use 1/4 inch Fiberfrax to impart texture on the back of transparent glass.  Is there a way to make it reusable?  I tried mould hardener on a small piece of it, but the hardener wasn’t absorbed.  I’m afraid the fiberfrax will lose its structure if I pre-fire it (to burn out the binders) before removing it to apply hardener.”

 

It is difficult to reuse refractory fibre paper after moving it between firings, but not impossible.  I have used two processes. One is to place the glass over the cut fibre paper. This works for small pieces. The fibre paper was placed on thinfire to allow air migration out. I used a long low temperature bubble squeeze to ensure the binder was completely burned out.

The other arrangement I have used for larger pieces.  This is to assemble and fire the fibre paper to burn out binders.  There is a large chance that not enough air will get to the centre of the fibre paper when large glass is placed on top.  Binder not burned out leaves a brown mark on the fibre paper and stains the glass grey. Turn off the kiln once all the binder is burned out as evidenced by the paper returning to white.  As soon as the temperature in the kiln is comfortable, you can place glass on top of the fibre paper.  It is strong enough that it will not be compacted by the weight of the glass.

Using un-hardened fibre

But there is no logical reason for these processes, although they work. Firing to about 500ºC/930ºF with a suitably long soak will clear those gasses before the forming of the glass begins.  You will know when there no longer is a smell of burning paper, or on more recent fibres a chemical smell.  Make sure you vent the kiln during this burnout to allow the smoke to escape.  For a large area, a soak there may need to be hours long.  Another check is when the fibre has turned white again, the binders are gone.  A further protection against bubbles in any area is to place the whole assembly on a bed of fibre paper.

It is possible to use un-hardened refractory fibre without a separator, as the older versions do not stick to glass easily.  However, if you are using the current eco fibres, they will stick in many areas.  Kiln washing any fibre before firing is the best protection against lengthy clean ups.  It also allows the best chance to remove the un-rigidised fibre for re-use.

A smoother surface can be given to the refractory fibre, if you want. Do this by smoothing powdered kiln wash over the bed layer and any other layers the glass will be touching.  An alternative to powdered kiln wash is to put Thinfire or Papyros cut to shape over each layer.

After firing, slide the fibre onto cardboard or another flat stiff surface. Then place into a large pizza or similar box. I have stored fibre in such a way for several firings.

Using hardened fibre

Of course, the fibre can be hardened by use of colloidal silica.  Make up the whole stack of fibre paper for the kiln carving.  Harden the whole stack at once. This helps to bind the layers together.  Brush on the hardener to the exposed part of each layer.  Cover both horizontal and vertical surfaces. Hardener does take time to soak into the fibre paper.  Give it time.  You can add more hardener at intervals.  Be careful to avoid overdoing it.  Fully wet fibre is difficult to move and takes a long time to dry - days.  The objective is to harden the surface of the fibre, not to harden the whole by soaking it.

Allow the carrier of the hardener to evaporate for hours or a day.  When you can move the fibre, fire to at least mid-700’s ºC/ 1300ºF to 1400ºF.  After firing, it must be covered with significant amounts of kiln wash. This can be as a liquid or as powder. I prefer liquid.  The kiln wash is required over all edges and surfaces to keep the glass from sticking to the fibre.

Storage of the rigidised fibre paper can be in the same way as for the fibre without binders or hardener.