Firing Quickly

Firing quickly is often our desire, in spite of the mantra of the experienced – slow and low. How to do this safely – without fractures or bubbles – is the requirement.

Firing quickly on smaller things (say, up to 100 mm) is not normally a problem.  Difficulties can arise due to the kind of layup, but usually the mass is not great enough to be thermally shocked, nor the size enough to trap air that would cause bubbles.

Firing quickly for larger pieces is where difficulties arise. These relate to the initial rate of advance to the softening point, the bubble squeeze, advance to top temperature, and annealing.

Advance to softening point
The first place this occurs is to the upper strain or softening point.  This is the range where the glass is solid and does not transmit heat well, leading to the risk of thermal shock.  You need to find a rate of advance that is a little slower than that which would cause the glass to break.  My guidance is to use no more than three times the annealing rate for the glass of that thickness to reach the softening point.  This temperature is approximately 40C above the annealing point. The glass is certainly plastic above that temperature, so the rate of advance can be faster.

Bubble squeeze
Strategies from the softening point to bubble squeeze vary.  You can go quickly, say 1.5 times the previous rate of advance, to the bubble squeeze heat soak of around 30 minutes.  The other is to go quickly to 50C below that temperature and advance at 50C per hour to the bubble squeeze heat soak.  This is often used on more complex and thicker lay ups. There are numerous variations upon these two strategies depending on the circumstances.

Top temperature
Ways to get to top temperature from the bubble squeeze vary, but as fast as possible risks bubbles due to excessive softening the surface, over firing due to the controller not shutting off quickly enough, and a lack of control of the surface texture.  Twice the initial rate of advance is quick enough, but still allowing the controller to shut off when the top temperature is being reached.

The soak at top temperature does not need to be more than 10 minutes.  If you can achieve the desired results in less that time, you should consider reducing your top temperature.

Annealing cool
A soak at the bottom end of the annealing range will reduce the anneal cooling time.  The lower temperature of the annealing range is about 40C below the annealing point, so to be safe the annealing soak can be set to be 30C below the annealing temperature.  This reduces the range of temperature over which the slow anneal cool takes place. 

The initial anneal cool should be to 55C below the soak, the second stage of the anneal cool to 110C below the soak can be at twice the initial anneal cool rate.  The rate of cool can be increased to 370C, where for pieces of 9mm or less, the kiln can be turned off.

However, you need to think carefully about firing quickly.  When realistically will you be able or actually need to take the piece out of the kiln?  If it is the next day or after work, then a slower firing reduces the risks of rapid firing and still enables you to take the piece out when needed.

Large Bubbles

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Some times you want large bubbles, but when you don't, you need to know about the causes of, and ways to prevent, bubbles.

Causes and prevention of most large bubbles relate to volume control, layup, rate of advance and top temperature.

Volume control. We all know that glass tends toward being 6-7mm thick at full fuse temperatures. Any less volume and the glass thickens at the edges, so trapping air under the glass which will push up and through given enough time and temperature.

Layup. The lack of volume control is compounded by layups which do not allow the air to escape from under the edges of the piece.

Rate of advance. These two problems are compounded by asap, or even just rapid, increases in temperature. The glass softens quickly and the air finds it easier to push the glass up than to escape from under the edges. Slowing down is part of the answer.

Top temperature. A high top temperature softens the glass to the extent that any lack in volume control, layups that have hollows or traps for air, and rapid increases in temperature all allow the expanding air (and there will always be some) underneath the glass to push up and often through the glass.

These factors reinforce the Low and Slow mantra.

Other factors can promote bubbles, although the ones above are the most common. Debris between the glass and the shelf, or between glass layers can cause bubbles, given the right conditions. Small shallow indentations in the shelf can be the source of bubbles from underneath the glass. This can be identified by observing where the bubbles occur in relation to the shelf.

There are some things that can be done to reduce the likelihood of bubbles:

Internal bubbles

Avoidance

Heating

Rapid firing

Damaged shelves

Supports

Flip and Fire

Glue

Safe Cooling Speeds

Almost everywhere you read that you should not open your kiln to cool it. But we know that the kiln cools progressively slower as it nears room temperatures. So how do we safely cool the kiln at rates the glass can cope with.

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Some advocate directing a fan at the closed kiln on the grounds that air movement will cool the kiln faster than still air will. Yes, but at a negligible rate due to the insulation properties of the the kiln.

It is much safer to program a sensible cooling rate all the way to room temperature from 370C. This allows you to open any viewing ports knowing that any rapid cooling will be counteracted by the controller switching on the heat. Upon hearing that power input, you can close the ports partially until the kiln cools a bit more.

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At lower temperatures, you can open the lid or door. The controller will operate as before warning you of too rapid cooling, so you can reduce the opening until more air is required.

Observation

It is the monitoring and observation of the effects firings as they progress that allows confidence in setting firing temperatures and schedules. Although we all have busy lives, planning the firings so you can watch at the forming temperatures enables you to develop your firing practice much more rapidly than firing and waiting to see what comes out the next day. It means that in a single firing you can pretty accurately determine the temperature you need for firing that type of piece, rather than an number of separate firings.

You set your schedule - for the best guess that you can make - at the required temperature, rate of advance, and soak to achieve what you need. At about 50ºC to 20ºC (depending on your certainty) before the set point, you begin peeking to see what the glass is doing. When the glass has achieved the desired result, you advance to the next segment. You of course, have already refreshed your memory on how to do that from your kiln manual.

There is a method of opening and closing kiln to be safe and avoid disturbing the contents. Any observation ports should be opened first. The lid/door should be opened slowly and only enough to see what you had already planned to look at, to determine whether it is ok or a decision is needed for some other action. This opening should be only a few seconds. The air temperature will change dramatically, but the glass temperature will lag behind significantly, so a few seconds with the door only cracked open will not damage the glass at most temperatures. The exception to this is the annealing range – generally around 520C to 400C. The kiln should not be opened at these temperatures so that there is no disturbance possible to the steady and even annealing of the glass.

At temperatures above the annealing, you need to have protective clothing. At the minimum you need natural fibres such as cotton or wool, and eye protection. It is important to check with your hand the amount of heat coming from an observation port before moving your face toward it to look into the kiln. When the kiln is being opened even for brief periods, you should protect you eyes from the infra red given off by the kiln's interior. You should have something to protect your arms and chest too.

Always when raising and lowering the lid – or opening and closing the door – do it slowly to avoid creating puffs or billows of air moving through the kiln which might disturb the pieces at low temperatures or move debris over the hot glass at the higher end of kiln forming.

If the glass has not achieved what you want by the end of your soak, just extend the hold until the effect is achieved. You will have reviewed how to do that from your kiln manual before starting the firing. When the glass has achieved the effect you desire, advance to the next segment of the schedule as the kiln manual directs.

You then record the schedule including temperatures, rates, times, effects, etc. You should include a description of the project and its dimensions and nature e.g. full fused, tack fused etc. You will also want to include what this was fired on, what kind of mould – include its description. This will give you the reference for that nature of project for the future without needing to guess.

Writing a Schedule

Making your own Schedule

I've been asked about making a schedule rather than using a pre-programmed one. My response is this, but please join in with amplifications and questions.

In principle, a firing schedule for glass follows these stages:

1 – a gradual, steady heat up to a temperature above the annealing point to avoid thermal shock

2 – a soak or slow rise around the slump temperature to allow any air to escape

3 – a more rapid rise to top temperature to avoid devitrification

4 – a rapid fall in temperature to an annealing soak, saving time and avoiding devitrification. The soak at annealing temperature is to equalise the temperature throughout the glass

5 – a steady slow fall in temperature to well below the lower strain point to complete the annealing

6 – a controlled cool to near room temperature to avoid thermal shock.

The details of schedules can appear complex, but the purposes of these six stages are reasonably simple.

Segment 1 is to heat the glass evenly without causing it to break from too fast an increase in temperature. At minimum this steady increase in temperature must continue to about 40ºC above the annealing point. (This will be about 540ºC)

Segment 2. This segment can include a “bubble squeeze” to enable air to get from between sheets of glass before the edges seal, or it can be a separate segment in your schedule. The slow rise in temperature will occur from about 600ºC to 680ºC. The bubble squeeze soak occurs at around 660ºC to 680ºC. In both cases there is normally a soak of half an hour at least at the end of the range.

Segment 3 is to go through the devitrification range (say 700ºC to 760ºC) as quickly as reasonable, but usually no faster than 330C per hour.

Segment 4 is to get back through the devitrification range to the annealing soak, which will be as long as required to equalise the temperature within the glass. This soak time increases exponentially with the thickness.

Segment 5 is the annealing cool, which should be a slow steady fall in temperature to ensure the glass all cools at the same rate (to around 370C).

Segment 6 continues the cool, although faster than previously, and often is achieved by turning the kiln off and leaving it closed until room temperature.

A schedule for a 6mm piece up to 2/3 the size of your kiln could be even simpler:

Segment 1 - 220 dph to 670C for 30 minutes

Segment 2 - 330 dph to 800 (flat fuse) for 10 minutes

Segment 3 - afap to 516 for 30 minutes

Segment 4 - 80 dph to 370, no soak

Segment 5 - off

You may find a schedule that will work, but you still need to know why it works, or at least what each segment is doing. So, for example, you need to think about what a 15 minute soak at 225C will do. What is the glass doing at that temperature? What do you want to achieve in that temperature range? Is there another way to achieve your objective? These are the kinds of questions you need to think about so you can construct your independent schedule when you move outside the parameters of the pre-programmed schedules.

To make a schedule for yourself can be worrying. But you can see from this example that it does not need to be complex. The principles are simple, although the details can be confusing. It is essential to know something about how heat affects the glass and this Bullseye Tech Note is one of the best descriptions. 

Knowing what the heat up events are is useful too. 

First Firing

Even if this is not your first kiln there are a number of things to do when starting.

The first is to read the manual. Obvious, but in our enthusiasm to get started, reading seems boring. It is essential to understand what the manufacturer wants you to do and to understand how the kiln and controller work.

Then, you can prepare kiln. Test fire the kiln empty to make sure it works and burn out any binders remaining in the kiln materials. You can do this firing at about 400C/hour as there is no glass to damage. Fire to around 800C. Then you can shut off, or programme a dummy anneal. This also ensures you know how to work the controller.

While waiting for the kiln to complete the fast test firing, read the manual again.

When the kiln is cool, apply kiln wash to the bottom (if it is brick) and lower sides, below any side elements. If the bottom or sides are fibre, no kiln wash is required. Kiln wash the shelf and any kiln furniture too.

Now is the time to test for how even the heat is in your kiln. Arrange the kiln furniture around the shelf as described and put glass over. The kiln furniture can be any refactory material, even folded 3 mm fibre paper will be strong enough to hold the small pieces of glass above the shelf. Fire the kiln as described in the Tech Note 1.

Now try out the suggestions in the manual, especially the programming of the controller, even if it has pre-programmed schedules. Look at Bullseye and Spectrum sites to get sample schedules. Enter these as trial schedules.

Then you should be ready to fire the first piece of glass. Place the glass in the kiln, programme it, and record the information about the firing. Now turn the kiln on for the first real fuse.

Slowing the Rate of Advance

The question is sometimes asked whether the rate of advance in a firing schedule should be slowed when re-firing; for a fire polish for example.

Cynthia Morgan contributes four circumstances where you would want to slow the rate of advance:

“1) On the previous firing you were fusing a whole bunch of little pieces into a much thicker piece, so you need to reduce your ramp to avoid thermal shocking the thicker glass

“2) You think you might not have annealed the piece well enough on the previous firing, so you're playing it safe

“3) You suspect there's a crack somewhere in the piece (from cold working or whatever) so you're reducing the chance it will expand quickly and open the crack

“4) You've got to do something to the glass/kiln at a certain point in the firing cycle, and if you go at your normal rate you'll wind up doing it at 3AM...so you slow down the firing and get more sleep.

“Otherwise, well-annealed is well-annealed. If none of those four conditions obtain, I don't see why you'd need to slow down”.

Annealing High Temperature Items

Every time you go above the annealing temperature, you must anneal again. You cannot skip or skimp on the annealing. You cannot rely on the annealing in the final firing to make your piece durable. Each time you fire a piece you are putting a lot heat stress into the piece.  If it has not been adequately annealed in the previous firing, it is much more likely to break on the heat up phase of the firing than if you annealed well on the previous firing.

The annealing at each stage in multiple firings is just as important as the previous one. In addition, pot melts and other high temperature items are inherently more delicate than those fired at their designed temperatures, so more careful annealing (including the annealing cool) is advisable. This is because the compatibility of glass alters a little at high temperatures. For example, you will observe that hot transparent colours opalise in the 900C range. This opalisation in itself will have altered the compatibility a little, because the opalescence alters the viscosity from what it was as a transparent. Other factors are at play too, such as some minor burning off of the colouring metals. So, careful annealing is required to ensure the maximum amount of stress is relieved. You also need to have a slower than usual initial rate of advance for any fire polish or slump firing after any high temperature process.

Even when firing at fusing temperatures, but beyond the tested number of firings, more careful annealing is required. In the case of Bullseye they have tested for three firings, although people get many more firings than that without difficulties. When taking glass beyond the design limits, more care is required in all phases of the firing to get durable results.

Writing Your Own Schedules, Part 2

Time Versus Rate

Schedules can be expressed as a rate per hour, or a time to get to the target temperature. What you feel most comfortable with relates largely to your background and teaching. Most ceramics based people use the time to get from one temperature to another. Most kiln formers without a background in ceramics tend to use rates per hour when writing schedules.

The rate of 100/hour to 100 degrees is the same as 1 hour to 100. 2.5 hours to 200 is the same as 80/hour to 200. So the conversion to a time to get to a target temperature is a simple one of dividing the temperature by the rate per hour to give the number of hours to achieve the target temperature. Some controllers will allow hours and minutes to be programmed; others allow only minutes – in which case multiply by 60 to give 150 minutes.

This is the same thing you do to find out how long a firing will take. If you see a schedule expressed as time e.g.,

3 hours to 677 for 0.5 hour,

1.25 hour to 800,

asap to 482 for 1 hour,

2.5 hours to 370

you already know approximately how long this firing will take – a bit more than 8.25 hours (3+0.5+1.25+1+2.5) plus cool down.

It can also be expressed as

225/hr to 677 for 30 mins,

102/hr (800-677=123/1.25) to 800,

afap to 482 for 30 mins,

45/hr (482-370=112/2.5) to 370.

The time to target temperature method of writing a schedule comes into its own when dealing with thick castings that require very slow cool downs. For example, a 60mm thick casting calls for an initial annealing cool of 2.4 degrees per hour over the range 482 to 428. I don't know of a programmer than can deal with decimals. So the alternative is to programme in time to target. In this case it would be a time of 22.5 hours.

The reason for avoiding the choice of 2 or 3 degrees per hour is accuracy. If you had put in 2 degrees per hour you would have spent 27 hours, possibly excessively long. If you had put in 3/hour it would have taken 18 hours, possibly not enough time for the glass to adequately anneal. So, for very slow rates of advance, time to target is much the most accurate method of writing the schedule.

Part 1

Boiled Glass

This is a technique that will obtain a random, organic feel to glass that would otherwise be scrap (cullet) – remembering that you have to use compatible glass throughout. The principle is to take the temperature up high enough for the glass to begin to flow easily and bubbles to blow through and burst.

The results can be used as they come out, or they can be cut to provide points of interest in other work, or the glass pieces can be damed before firing to obtain thick pieces which can be cut into slices for other work. And I am sure, there are numerous other ways to use the resulting glass too.

The effects are rather like colourful molten rock with gases bubbling through. These bubbles mix the glass colours. So you need to be sure you do not use a wide variety of colours, or your result will be similar to the molten rock - muddy. Use a few contrasting colours, and ensure you include a significant proportion of white to maintain bright colours. Also remember that the hot colours – reds, yellows, oranges – opalise at high temperatures, so the transparents can be used as opals.

You can use whole sheets of glass or scraps. In either case, it is useful to start with a clear base to help avoid picking up kiln wash when the glass is moving about. The glass must be clean to reduce the incidence of devitrification. Stack you glass on top of the base glass in what ever order you like. Contrasting colours alternated give a strong result.

You can put shelf paper of 0.5 mm or thicker on the shelf or simply kiln wash the shelf with several layers of wash until the shelf surface is no longer visible through the wash. Use of thinfire is not recommended as the powder can be pulled into the glass.

If you do not dam the area to contain the glass calculate how far the glass will expand on the shelf, so that you do not put down too much glass and have it spill over the edge of the shelf.  

You can use bubble powder onto the base layer to promote the bubbling during the firing. However, if you are using cullet, you can just take the temperature up rapidly without a bubble squeeze, which will give you plenty of air pockets to burst through the layers of glass.

You can take the temperature up at about 300ºC per hour to 925ºC with no bubble squeeze and soak for 10 – 15 minutes. Then allow the kiln to drop the temperature as fast as possible to about 815 and soak there for around 30 minutes to allow the little bubbles to rise to the surface an burst too. Then reduce to the annealing temperature and soak for the thickness you calculated in preparation for the firing.

Precautions

You need to be careful in firing and annealing pieces using this glass. Any glass that has been fired to a high temperature tends to begin changing compatibility. So you need to be careful on your rates of advance, and on the annealing and cooling portions of the firing when using the glass in other projects. You may want to consider using a schedule for twice the thickness of the piece on subsequent firings.

There may be devitrification on the surface. You should sandblast or abrade away this devitrification in some way to be able to get a shining surface when you fire polish.

There may also be a number of pin hole sized bubbles at or just below the surface. These will close with a fire polish also.

Shape of Aperture Drops

The shape of an aperture drop can be controlled by the speed of the slump. The speed at which the glass drops is a combination of heat and size of the hole. Patience is required.

Rapid drops result from high temperatures. Rapid slumps cause a thinning of the glass at the shoulder where the glass turns over the inner rim of the aperture. The pattern is distorted and the colours are also diluted. And a relatively large rim is left around the fired piece.

A much slower rate of drop spreads the strain of the slump over the whole of the unsupported area of glass. This tends toward a bowl with a gentle slope toward the bottom, reduced distortion of the pattern, maintenance of the colour densities, and a more even wall thickness all over the piece.

The slumping temperature for a shallow angled slump is less than that used for normal slumps, and takes a lot longer – up to five hours typically. This means that observation is required at intervals, say every half hour.

A starting point for the slumping is around 100ºC above the annealing temperature for the glass. So for Bullseye and System 96 the temperature is about 615ºC. If after the first half hour, there is no movement, increase the temperature by 10ºC. Check again in another half hour and if the slump has begun, leave the temperature at that level and observe at the half hourly intervals until the desired slump is achieved. Otherwise, increase the temperature by another 10ºC with the check after half an hour, and repeat until the slump has begun. After you have done the first one of these with a particular size of aperture, you will know the temperature to start the slump.

The temperature you need to use is affected by the size of the hole. The smaller the aperture, the higher the temperature will be needed. But be patient. If the temperature is increased too much, you will get the thinning of the sides that you are trying to avoid.

Additional information on aperture drops can be found in this series.

Rates of Advance

There is a lot of literature about annealing and cooling rates, as they are the most critical elements in producing a piece with minimum stresses within it. But there is not so much information on initial rates of advance.

It is possible to break the glass in heating it up by going too fast during the initial temperature rise. How fast you can increase the temperature is dependent on how even the heat is within your kiln. So any suggestions have to be tested within your own kiln and setup rather than relying exclusively on others' experience. Some of the considerations relating to the kiln are given in this blog about initial rates of advance.

So with those precautions, I put forward a suggestion based on my experience and information gleaned from the Bullseye site, education section and from Graham Stone's work. These lead me to suggest that the initial rate of advance can be twice the actual or planned first cooling segment. This rate of advance applies up to the softening point of the glass.

So this theory implies that a piece of glass 6mm thick - that might be annealed at 80ºC per hour during the first cooling segment - can be taken up at rate of 160ºC/hour to the softening point. And by extension:

• A 12mm thick piece could be taken up at 110ºC
• A 19mm piece could have an initial rate of advance of 50ºC/hr
• A 25mm thick piece of glass could be taken up at 30ºC/hour.

These all depend on a number of factors:

• how the glass is supported,
• the nature of the shelf,
• the composition of the mould, and
• the kiln characteristics as well as
• the colour combinations and
• whether the piece is tack fused or full fused.

If the glass is heated only from the top with no ventilation beneath the shelf, more caution is required.

Slower rates of advance are indicated if 

• the glass is supported only at a few points, 
• or if the kiln is side fired or has cool spots.
• If the piece is tack fused, you need to slow the rates of advance. 
•  Consider the rate of advance for the next thicker glass as your starting point as a minimum.

Remember that these numbers can only be used as a guide in conducting you own experiments.

Annealing a Stressed Piece

If a project has not been sufficiently annealed, it is possible to re-fire to do a good anneal.

You need to establish a slow rate of advance; one that is much slower than for the heat up of a fully annealed piece of the same thickness. This is because you can heat shock the glass much more easily than one which is adequately annealed. I suggest going at about half the rate of a normal firing for a piece of the same thickness.

You have to make sure all the glass is above the annealing temperature so it is advisable to go up to near the slumping or softening point of the glass to ensure all the stresses are removed before beginning the annealing process. If you want or need to retain the level of texture of the previous firing, you will need to go to about 20ºC above the annealing soak point of the glass and soak there for at least as long as you plan to soak at the anneal point.

Anneal at a rate (after the anneal soak) that is considerably slower than previously used. Look at the Bullseye annealing schedules for thick glass, or their project notes for annealing bowls to get some good guidance on the rates of cooling.

Initial Heat Up Rates

Example of a graph of a heat up for industrial purposes

There is quite a lot of information on the annealing cool rates, but not so much on the initial heat up rates. This is probably because the cooling rates are more critical than the heat up. But everyone knows that you can heat the glass up too quickly for its thickness.

My experience leads me to suggest some heat up rates to 50C above the annealing temperature for circular and nearly square full fused pieces. These have worked for me, but of course, may not work in all kilns.

6mm heat up at 160ºC/hr

12mm heat up at 110ºC/hr

19mm heat up at 50ºC/hr

25mm heat up at 30ºC/hr

In general, these heat up rates are no more than twice the initial annealing rate for the relevant thickness.  That is, the initial anneal cool for 6mm is 80C/hr; and for 12mm is 55C/hr.  When you get to 25mm, my initial anneal cooling rate is only 15C/hr.  So you can see how the doubling of the initial anneal cool works.

Tack fused and pointed pieces require much more careful heating because of the differing thicknesses within the piece, or the relative narrowness of one end or area in comparison to other areas. The suggestion is that the heat up for these should be at the rates suitable for items at least twice as thick as the thickest part of the tack fused or tapered piece.

Slumping Tack Fused Stringers

With a piece made up of tack fused stringers it is important to anneal carefully. There are a multiplicity of small contact points where the glass is little more than laminated. This means that each piece of glass will try to contract into itself rather than acting as a single unit. An annealing soak and cool should be chosen to be several times longer than its nominal thickness.

Slumping of this piece will also need to be done carefully. First, to ensure all the contact points can relax as soon as the thinner parts of the stringers. Second, the weight of the piece is not as great as one of the same size and so will not fall into the mould in the same way – it will take longer. Third, the movement of the glass will be within the fragile stringers so it is important to take the heat up slowly so they can bend rather than fracture . So, fourthly, it is important to establish a schedule that will have a slow rate of advance to the lowest possible temperature with a long soak for a slump of the required depth.

Slumping Single Layers

Slumping small single-layer pieces

A different set of conditions are formed when slumping small pieces. It takes more time or heat to slump small pieces, because there is less weight to pull the glass down into the mould. Because there is less weight in a single layer than in a two layer fused piece, more time is required for the glass to conform to the mould. The exact amount of time and heat will have to be observed for each kiln and kind of layup.

The alternative strategy is to increase the heat. This can work, but leaves more mould marks on the finished piece. The increased temperature causes the forming to occur much more rapidly and may lead – if not closely observed – to over stretching or “bubbles” at the bottom of the mould.

If you are not concerned about the exact nature of the shape of the piece you can fire pretty fast and high. This will produce a curve, but probably not good conformation to the mould. Even if there is good conformation, there will be significant marking of the back of the glass.

If you want a relatively unmarked and slumped piece, you need to change strategy. You can take the glass up in temperature rapidly to ca. 600C and then use about 40C/hour to 677C. Begin watching from about 635C. This slower advance in the slumping range gives better control of the slump. Slower rates of advance give less distortion and less movement within the mould. It also provides a less marked piece, because the slumping is done at a relatively low temperature.

When the piece achieves the shape you want, record the temperature and advance to the next – cooling - segment. The recording of the temperature will give you information for future slumps of this nature.

On any slump that is new to you, either in terms of the mould or the thickness and size of the glass, you need to make records to help determine the optimum combination of conditions. You should of course, record each firing anyway.

You will find more information on factors affecting slumping at these locations:

Weight/thickness

Mould sizes

Mould shape and detail

Uneven slumps

Firing speeds

Glass bending

The purpose of glass bending is to achieve a mark-free curved surface. This is usually done with glass that has smooth surfaces - normally clear but it can be applied to any smooth coloured glass too.

There are at least two methods – moulds and free bends.

Mould

Using a mould enables you to achieve the shape you want with the least observation. However, you need to be careful to use the lowest temperature to achieve the shape to avoid marking the glass. You also need to measure the outer circumference of the original shape, as you are bending, not stretching the glass as in most other slumping operations. A mould is most useful when the shape is not a radius curve. Metal can work very well and because you are using low temperatures, a dusting of alumina hydrate or talc will act as an effective separator. Of course you can use ceramic or fibre as a mould too.

To be able to use the low temperatures required, you need to take advantage of the weight of the glass.  This means the glass needs to fall into the mould, not drape over it.  Relatively fast rates of advance can be used, as you are normally bending one layer of glass.  However from the annealing point upwards the rate should be slowed to allow all the glass to heat throughout and enable the bend to occur at low temperatures.  Observation will be required to determine when the bend fully conforms to the mould.

Free drop

A free drop is similar to an aperture drop, but using a channel rather than a bounded opening. To do this arrange a channel of the appropriate width plus 10mm to allow the full curve to form at the edge. Kiln shelves that are cut into strips, or lengths of fibre board - both supported on kiln furniture - will provide a good channel. Apply kiln wash to horizontal pieces forming the channel or cover in fibre paper. Place a witness at the appropriate height to ensure you can see when the glass has reached the depth/curve required. Initially, this seems to be extra work, but the expense of making a metal mould far outweighs the time taken to set up a free bend for simple radius curves.

Temperature

The temperatures required for glass bending are 40C-80C above the annealing point of the glass. For simple curves start with the 40C above annealing whether using a mould or channel . If after two hours, nothing has been achieved, advance 10C and soak for another two hours. Repeat as necessary. Lots of observation is required. Remember that the wider the aperture and the thicker the glass the less time and temperature is required to achieve the result. After the first bend you will know the combination of temperature and time required for the depth and width of any other piece like this.

Stopping the bend

If you are using a mould, you simply advance to next segment. With a free drop you can also simply advance to next segment as the movement is so slow. But if it is a deep bend - more than a simple radius curve - advance to next segment and open kiln until annealing temperature is reached. Then close the kiln and anneal.

Anneal for the thickness of the glass. No special annealing is required.

For the free drop, when cold, cut off the excess to the size required for the opening.

Bottle Slumping

Firing

The amount of slump you want will determine the top temperature combined with the rate of advance.

You have the choice of firing slow and low or fast and high. If you choose the former, you can also choose a lower final temperature. As a starting point for considering your firing schedule you can assume that bottle glass is very similar to float glass. This means that you can start with an annealing temperature of about 548C and a softening point of 720C. The strain point is around 510C, so all the annealing needs to be finished by that temperature.

Bottle glass is fairly robust, so an initial rise of 150C/hr to 600C may be slow enough, considering the differences in thickness that most bottles exhibit and then faster to your top temperature. A little experimentation is required. The minimum temperature required for a slump will be around 720C. The slumping temperature you choose depends on how fast you want to achieve your slump and how flat you want the result to be. Slow slumps can be done at around 720C, but if you want faster or flatter you need to consider temperatures around 770 -790C. You will need to observe to determine what temperatures are best for your desired results.

Annealing needs to be done carefully for two reasons. You do not know how consistently the glass has been made and you have a range of thicknesses involved in the now slumped piece. So it is safest to assume the piece is now about 20 mm thick. This would require a 3 hours soak at 550C; an initial annealing cool rate of 25 C/hr to 495C; a secondary cool rate of 45C/hr to 440; and a final cooling rate of 150C/hr to around 50C. If the bottles are clear or light enough, you should do a stress test on them by placing the bottle between polarised filters and over a light source. This will tell you if you have annealed properly.

You also need to consider whether you can fire bottles from different brands of drink and different parts of the world together. Some say don't try it. Others say there is so little variation in glass the world over that careful annealing will compensate for the differences. Experimentation is the only way that you will be able to tell.

Allow a day after firing before any cleaning or washing of the bottles is done.

Bottle Slumping

There are four major considerations in bottle slumping: cleaning, placing, firing, results.

Cleaning

A major consideration in slumping bottles is the cleaning required. This requires a lot of time, as everything has to be clean inside and out.

Labels and the glue attaching them must be cleaned off. The interior needs to be clean. And the bottle needs to be dry before being placed in the kiln.

Soaking first helps the cleaning process. If you are doing large numbers you will need to find large containers that you can leave the bottles in to soak for a couple of days. For small numbers, a few bottles soaking in a bucket of soapy water will do. The bottles should be upright to allow the internal residues to float to the top. After a few days the labels should have fallen off and the internal deposits floated to the top or easily washed out. Screen or plug the sink to be able to remove the residues from the sink before it gets into the drain. Then you can proceed to rinse and clean the bottles.

The bottles will need to be wiped free of the glues used to stick the labels to the bottles.  Any glue residue left on the bottle will show up on the finished piece, usually as devitrification. If the glue or label has not come off with the cold water and soap soak, you can soak them in very hot water. You can then use a variety of solvents to remove the most persistent adhesives.

For the difficult internal deposits, you can use one or two short lengths of small chain and slosh that around with water. The chain used for hanging small stained glass panels is ideal.

As you can see the cleaning process is lengthy and can be time consuming. So you might want to see if you can get new bottles at a reasonable price. Home brew shops may have bottles they are willing to dispose of. Bottling plants may also have supplies of bottles. New bottles will greatly reduce the labour of bottle slumping, although it does not fit the re-cycling ethos that brings people to bottle slumping in the first place.

Thick Uneven Pieces

Occasionally fused pieces come out of the kiln with one side thicker than the other. There are several things that need to be done for the present piece and for the future.


Level

First check how level your kiln is. The best for this is to begin with a check of the bed of the kiln. Check the level in four directions – left-right, front-back and the diagonals. If it is practical, wedge up the legs of the kiln to make the bed of the kiln as level as practical.

Then check how level your shelf is. Put in your shelf supports and then place the shelf on them. Again check with a spirit level the four directions. Place pieces of fibre paper under or on top of the supports to level the shelf. It is only after these checks have been made that you can consider firing your piece to help it return to an even thickness.  As part of your kiln maintenance you should check the level of your shelf at least monthly, if not every time you prepare to fire.

Variation in Thickness
Now that you know the shelf is level, you need to consider what the variation in thickness across the piece may be. The firing schedule needs to be more conservative than just for the thickest part. As the thinner parts will heat through more quickly than the thickest parts, you need to fire less quickly than you normally would for the thickest area. A rule of thumb – not always correct of course – is to add the difference of the thick and thin areas to the thicker and fire for that calculated thicknesses. This will make the firing schedule slower and so allow the thicker part to be the same temperature as the thinner. For example, a piece 6 mm at one side and 10 mm the other would have a difference of 4 mm. Add this 4 mm to the thicker 10 mm and then fire for 14 mm.

Temperature and Soak
You also need to consider the top temperature to use and the length of soak required. Glass flows relatively slowly at kiln forming temperatures. The conservative approach – one that allows further work if necessary – is to use the previous fusing temperature and extend the soak by at least twice the length of time on the previous firing, even perhaps to a couple of hours.

Bubbles
One thing that will happen is that the bubbles that previously were near the surface will rise and burst giving pin holes on this extended soak. So you should consider cleaning the bottom and putting the top face down on a separator between the shelf and the glass.   This will reverse the direction of flow for the bubbles. Few if any will break through the new top and there should be no pin holes when flipped.

Further Firings
When the piece is cool, check it for the even-ness of the piece all around. If it is not even enough, you will need to consider re-firing again. If you decide to do so, you should go no faster than the rate of advance as previously – probably even slower - but consider raising the temperature or extending the soak. Remember that achieving the heat work required at the lowest temperature is the guide line for kiln forming. So an extended soak should be preferred over a higher temperature, unless there are strong indications that a higher temperature is required.

Fire Polishing
Of course, you will now need to throughly clean the face down side and re-fire to fire polish the original top. The rate of advance should be the same or slower than the firing to even the thickness. Once you have achieved about 600C, a soak of about 30 minutes will ensure that the glass is thoroughly heated through. Then you can advance at a quick rate to the fire polish temperature with a soak of no more than a minute. This allows the surface to change without giving the rest of the glass time to begin to move.  Of course, a thorough annealing is required.

This procedure for re-firing  can be used when re-firing pieces for any reason. You only need eliminate the considerations on the uneven thicknesses.