This is based on Graham Stone’s work with float glass. The temperatures are applicable to float glass, and so need to be adjusted for any other glass, but illustrate the principle of how heating temperatures affect the glass. Temperatures in degrees Celsius.
10-250 Slow rate heating up. Risk of thermal shock. Venting often done in this phase.
250-500 Medium rate heating. Risk of thermal shock diminishing.
400 + Many glasses now tolerate fast heating up ramp rate.
550 Glass surface beginning to soften slightly
600 Safe from thermal shock above this temperature
610 Glass bending slightly, picking up texture.
680 Glass begins to stick to itself. Tin bloom becomes iridescent.
690 Fusing glasses reaching their softening points.
715 Glass beginning to stretch. Tack-fired pieces adhered by now.
720 Subtle devitrification and iridisation burn off becoming a factor with some glasses.
730 Softening point of float.
750 Edges no longer sharp. Tin bloom stretching becoming "frosty".
760 Tack fuse range for fusing glasses.
770 Float glass fused, but still "sitting up".
790 Trapped air can cause bubbles under sheet glass at this temperature.
800 Full fuse for most fusing glasses.
820 Fused float glass nearly flat.
825 Full fuse for float glass. Devitrification more pronounced.
850 Glass flowing.
950 Glass soft enough to "rake".
1000 Approximate liquidus temperature.
Based on Firing Schedules for Glass; the Kiln Companion, by Graham Stone, Melbourne, 2000, ISBN 0-646-39733-8, p24
Post revised 5th March 2014
Showing posts with label Glass and Heat. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Glass and Heat. Show all posts
Wednesday 5 March 2014
Wednesday 29 January 2014
Stretch Marks in Slumping
Occasionally
a slumped piece will develop faint lines beginning about half to
two-thirds of the way from the centre and radiating toward the edge.
My
experience leads me to think that these marks come from the glass
moving too quickly at too hot a temperature. The glass softens as it
reaches its slump point. If the temperature is taken above that, the
glass conforms to the mould and then begins to slide downwards. The
mould is by its nature not perfectly smooth and so the high points
make marks on the glass as it moves.
This
is re-enforced by the fact that the glass at the centre of these
slumps does not have those marks. It deforms less than the edges of
the piece and so (at whatever temperature) does not get so marked as
the sides and edges.
To
avoid these stretch marks you need to slump at the lowest possible
temperature and ensure the glass is the same temperature throughout
by the time it gets to its slumping point.
Temperature
Finding
the lowest temperature for the slumps in a particular mould requires
experimentation and observation. A simple curve – circular, oval
or rectangular – requires less heat than one with a flat bottom and
much less than one with angles. For a simple curve you can set your
slumping temperature at say 620ºC with up to an hour soak. The
important element to remember is that each shape and curve of mould
will require different schedules. To determine this you need to make
observations.
From
about 600ºC you need to make periodic observations of the progress
of the slump. Note the temperature at which the glass begins to move
– the reflections in the glass will begin to be curved. This is
the minimum temperature you can use for this span and thickness of
glass on this mould. The length of time required to get a complete
slump may be so long as to make using this temperature impractical.
Slump not quite complete |
Now
observations need to become more frequent – possibly every 10
minutes or less. When you reach a temperature where the glass is visibly
distorting, it is time to cease the temperature advance and begin the
soak. Record this temperature and continue to observe, recording the
time it takes at this temperature to fully slump. Continue to the
anneal.
Inspect
the piece when cool. If you have the result you want, you have the
temperature and soak time needed for this thicknesses and size of
glass on this mould. Record this information. If it is not fully
slumped you can try either extending the time (if that is practical,
it is the best option) or increasing the temperature on another
piece. This increase should be by no more than 10ºC, so that you do
not over fire the piece.
Glass conforms to the bottom of the mould |
Of
course, it is possible that the piece was slumped at too high a
temperature as evidenced by stretch marks, mould marks, uprisings in
the centre, distortions on the edges. Then you need to reduce the
temperature on the next slumping of a piece of the same dimensions.
Start with 10ºC less than your first piece, and programme the same
amount of time. Observe, record and inspect as on the previous one.
This
process shows why it is important to have a kiln with observation
ports to be able to follow the progress of your work. In some ways,
it is more important to have observation ports than whether the kiln
is front or top loading, coffin or clam shell opening. But that is
by the way.
Heat
The
second important element in avoiding stretch marks is to enable the
glass to be at the same temperature throughout its thickness. This
involves the concept of heat work. In
general terms it means you can achieve the same result by putting the
heat in fast and at a high temperature or slowly and at a low
temperature. The “slow and low” approach
allows more control and allows the glass to be the same temperature
on top as on the bottom.
It is
important to heat the glass slowly and steadily all the way up to the
slumping temperature. The temptation to increase the temperature
rapidly after the strain point needs to be resisted. Getting the top
too hot can at the worst, cause a split
on the bottom of the glass as the tension from slumping glass on the
top splits the stiff glass at the bottom.
This
means there is no need for a soak at the strain point, nor a speed up
in the rate of advance up to the slumping temperature. Exactly the
opposite is indicated. Choose a rate of advance for the glass
according to its thickness – at 6mm a rate of 150ºC will be
adequate. Maintain that rate of advance all the way up to the slump
temperature. This also is required when you are making observations
to determine what the slump temperature should be. The moderate rate
of advance all the way to slumping temperature ensures the whole
thickness of the glass is at the same temperature.
Heating
the glass slowly to enable all of it to be at the same temperature,
allows the glass to change shape at the lowest possible temperature
and avoid picking up so much of the mould texture. The glass at the
edge and upper sides is in contact with mould longer than central
parts as it changes shape and slides along the surface of the mould
at elevated temperatures. The lower the temperature used with a long
soak, means that the glass is less likely to slide along the mould
and so adds to the avoidance of stretch marks.
Wednesday 18 December 2013
Tack Fusing Considerations
1 – Initial Rate of Advance
Tack fuses look easier than full fusing,
but they are really one of the most difficult types of kiln forming. Tack
fusing requires much more care than full fusing.
On heat up, the pieces on top shade the heat from the base glass leading to uneven heating. So you need a slower heat up. You can get some assistance in determining this by looking at what the annealing cool rate for the piece is. A very conservative approach is needed when you have a number of pieces stacked over the base layer. One way of thinking about this is to set your initial rate of advance at approximately twice the anneal cool rate. More information on this is given in this entry.
2 – Annealing
The tacked glass can be considered to be laminated rather than fully formed together. This means the glass sheets are still able, partially, to act as separate entities. So excellent annealing is required.
On heat up, the pieces on top shade the heat from the base glass leading to uneven heating. So you need a slower heat up. You can get some assistance in determining this by looking at what the annealing cool rate for the piece is. A very conservative approach is needed when you have a number of pieces stacked over the base layer. One way of thinking about this is to set your initial rate of advance at approximately twice the anneal cool rate. More information on this is given in this entry.
2 – Annealing
The tacked glass can be considered to be laminated rather than fully formed together. This means the glass sheets are still able, partially, to act as separate entities. So excellent annealing is required.
Glass contracts when it's
cooling, and so tends to pull into itself. In a flat, symmetrical fuse this
isn't much of a problem. In tack fuses where the glass components are still
distinct from their neighbours, they will try to shrink into themselves and
away from each other. If there is not enough time for the glass to settle into
balance, a lot of stress will be locked into the piece that either cause it to
crack on cool down or to be remarkably fragile after firing. In addition, in
tack fusing there are very uneven thicknesses meaning it is hard to maintain
equal temperatures across the glass. The tack fused pieces shield the heat from
the base, leading to localised hot spots on cool down.
On very difficult tack
fuses it's not unusual to anneal for a thickness of four to six times greater
than the actual maximum thickness of the glass. That extended cool helps ensure
that the glass has time to shift and relax as it's becoming stiffer, and also
helps keep the temperature more even throughout.
So in general, tack fused
pieces should be annealed as though they are thicker pieces. Recommendations
range from the rate for glass that is one thickness greater to at least twice
the maximum thickness – including the tacked elements – of the whole item.
Where there are right angles - squares, rectangles - or more acutely angled
shapes, even more time in the annealing cool is required, possibly up to 5
times the total thickness of the piece.
It must be remembered
especially in tack fusing, that annealing is much more than the annealing soak.
The soak is to ensure all the glass is at the same temperature. The anneal cool
over the next 110ºC is to ensure this piece of different thicknesses will all
react together. That means tack fusing takes a lot longer than regular fussing.
3 – Effects of
thicknesses, shapes, degree of tack
The more rectangular or
pointed the pieces there are in the piece, the greater the care in annealing is required. How you
decide on the schedule to use varies. Some go up two or even four times the
total thickness of the piece to choose a firing schedule.
A simplistic estimation of
the schedule required is to subtract the difference between the thickest and
the thinnest part of the piece and add that number to the thickest part. If you
have a 3mm section and a 12mm section, the difference is 9mm. So add 9 to 12
and get 17mm that needs to be annealed for. This thickness applies to the heat
up section as well.
Another way to estimate
the schedule required is to increase the length the annealing schedule for any
and each of the following factors:
·
Tack fusing of a single additional layer on a six millimetre base
·
Rectangular pieces to be tack fused
·
Sharp, pointed pieces to be tack fused
·
Multiple layers to be tack fused
·
Degree of tack – the closer to lamination, the more time required
The annealing schedule to
be considered is the one for at least the next step up in thickness for each of the factors. If you have all five factors the annealing schedule that should be used is one for at least 21mm thick pieces according to this way of thinking
about the firing.
4 –
Testing/Experimentation
The only way you will have
certainty about which to schedule to choose is to make up a piece of the
configuration you intend, but in clear. You can then check for the stresses. If
you have chosen twice the thickness, and stress is showing, you need to try 3
times the thickness, etc. So your annealing soak needs to be longer, if stress
shows. You can speed things by having your annealing soak at the lower end of
the annealing range (for Bullseye this is 482C, rather than 516C).
You will need to do some
experimentation on what works best for you. You also need to have a pair of
polarisation filters to help you with determining whether you have any stress
in your piece or not. If your piece is to be in opaque glasses, you need to do
a mock up in clear.
Wednesday 13 November 2013
Glass Shifting on Mould
There
are a number of things to investigate if your blank is shifting on
the mould during firing.
Is
there a heat differential?
Glass
absorbs heat at different rates depending on colour and type meaning
that one part may begin to move before another. The solution to this
is to slow down the rate of advance to allow all the glass to gain
heat at the same speed. It may also be useful to slump at a lower
temperature.
There
also may be a heat differential within the kiln. You need to run a
check on the heat distribution of your kiln to be sure where the
(relatively) hot and cold areas of your kiln are. Bullseye published Tech Note no.1 on how to do this.
Not
perfectly balanced on the mould?
Glass
can be placed just off square or level and that can allow it to start
slumping unevenly. Measurements and observation can help to get the
glass placed squarely on the mould. Also a small spirit level placed
on the glass can tell you if the glass is level within the mould.
The
mould may not be level.
The
kiln, shelf and mould should each be checked for level in all
directions. The kiln level can be established and can be assumed to
be level until it is moved. The shelf level should be checked each
time it is moved. The mould level should be checked each time it is
used.
Is
the glass overhanging the mould?
Glass
overhanging the mould rim can hang up on some of the edges more than
others. Check the rim of the mould for any rough areas and smooth
them. If you do have glass overhanging, you should slow the rate of
advance to allow the edge of the glass to tip up and begin to slide
down into the mould. If the problem persists, make the glass blank
smaller, or support the overhanging glass with a collar.
Is
the glass heavier on one side?
The
glass may be uneven thickness and so heavier on one side. The
heavier area of the glass will begin to slump first and so promote
movement of the whole glass in an asymmetrical manner. The solution
to this is to fire slower and to a lower temperature.
Do
you have a wonky mould?
The
mould can be imperfect. So you need to check the mould for accuracy.
I have a slumper that has one side lower than the other three.
Being aware of this, I can place the glass so that it is still
useable. Measuring the mould in all directions will help determine
its symmetry.
If
all these things have been investigated and the solution not found,
it is possible to create a bevel on the bottom edge of the glass so
that the edge sits in the mould at the same angle as the mould. This
provides a larger contact point for the glass and mould than just a
thin edge. This appears to allow the glass to move evenly during the
slump.
Of course, a major solution is to observe the slump. Peeking into the kiln at the beginning of the slump soak and frequent intervals after that will show if the piece is slumping evenly or not. If it is uneven, you can put on the appropriate protective gear and with gloves on your hands, shift the glass to be set evenly in the mould.
The
major solutions to avoid uneven slumping are:
- Avoiding the hot and cool parts of the kiln
- Making everything level
- Careful placement on the mould
- Slower rates of advance
- Lower slumping temperatures
- Observation
Wednesday 23 October 2013
Shape of Aperture Drops
The shape of an aperture drop can be controlled by the speed
of the slump. The speed at which the glass drops is a combination of heat and
size of the hole. Patience is required.
Rapid drops result from high temperatures. Rapid slumps
cause a thinning of the glass at the shoulder where the glass turns over the
inner rim of the aperture. The pattern is distorted and the colours are also
diluted. And a relatively large rim is left around the fired piece.
A much slower rate of drop spreads the strain of the slump over the whole of the unsupported area of glass. This tends toward a bowl with a gentle slope toward the bottom, reduced distortion of the pattern, maintenance of the colour densities, and a more even wall thickness all over the piece.
The slumping temperature for a shallow angled slump is less
than that used for normal slumps, and takes a lot longer – up to five hours
typically. This means that observation is required at intervals, say every half
hour.
A starting point for the slumping is around 100ºC above the
annealing temperature for the glass. So for Bullseye and System 96 the
temperature is about 615ºC. If after the first half hour, there is no movement,
increase the temperature by 10ºC. Check again in another half hour and if the
slump has begun, leave the temperature at that level and observe at the half
hourly intervals until the desired slump is achieved. Otherwise, increase the
temperature by another 10ºC with the check after half an hour, and repeat until
the slump has begun. After you have done the first one of these with a
particular size of aperture, you will know the temperature to start the slump.
The temperature you need to use is affected by the size of
the hole. The smaller the aperture, the higher the temperature will be needed.
But be patient. If the temperature is increased too much, you will get the
thinning of the sides that you are trying to avoid.
Additional information on aperture drops can be found
in this
series.
Monday 20 September 2010
Temperature Rise Rates
I am always concerned when people recommend soaks on the way up in order to equalise temperatures. If the soak is required because the ramp rate is too fast, there are breakages going to happen sometime - maybe not now, maybe not tomorrow, but certainly sometime. If you need that extra time, add it into the schedule. E.g., a ramp rate of 200C from 20C to 520C with a 20 min soak could also be written as 176C/hr from 20C to 520C - both take 2.833 hours to achieve the same temperature. A controlled heating rate is preferable to one or more rapid rates with soaks.
I am also concerned about very rapid temperature rises after the bubble squeeze. The controllers often cannot adequately control such rapid rises. The rapid rise also often requires a higher target temperature to achieve the desired effect. This can mean that it is easier for bubbles - large and small - to form and rise to the surface during the overshoot of the target temperature. Temperature increases are about heat work - the combination of temperature and time. This means that you can achieve the desired result in two ways:
1- fast rise to high temperature or
2- Slow rise to lower temperature.
The second strategy may also require a longer soak at the target temperature than the one with a fast rise to a high temperature.
The aim in kiln work should be to achieve the effect you want at the lowest practical temperature. This is because glasses tend to change their characteristics more at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures.
I am also concerned about very rapid temperature rises after the bubble squeeze. The controllers often cannot adequately control such rapid rises. The rapid rise also often requires a higher target temperature to achieve the desired effect. This can mean that it is easier for bubbles - large and small - to form and rise to the surface during the overshoot of the target temperature. Temperature increases are about heat work - the combination of temperature and time. This means that you can achieve the desired result in two ways:
1- fast rise to high temperature or
2- Slow rise to lower temperature.
The second strategy may also require a longer soak at the target temperature than the one with a fast rise to a high temperature.
The aim in kiln work should be to achieve the effect you want at the lowest practical temperature. This is because glasses tend to change their characteristics more at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures.
Labels:
Fused Glass in Glasgow,
Glass and Heat,
kiln forming,
Verrier
Thursday 24 September 2009
Cooling Events
This is based on Graham Stone’s work with float glass. The temperatures are applicable to float glass, and so need to be adjusted for a particular glass, but illustrate the principle of how heating temperatures affect the glass. Temperatures in degrees Celsius.
600 Common temperature for crash cooling toward. Glass beginning to "freeze".
555 Annealing temperature of float. Bungs in.
515 Approximate Strain Point of float.
535-400 Critical slow cooling down phase for float that overlaps annealing range.
400-300 Medium cooling down ramp rate.
300-10 Fast cooling down ramp rate. Cracking the kiln open possible.
Based on Firing Schedules for Glass; the Kiln Compainion, by Graham Stone, Melbourne, 2000, ISBN 0-646-39733-8, p24
600 Common temperature for crash cooling toward. Glass beginning to "freeze".
555 Annealing temperature of float. Bungs in.
515 Approximate Strain Point of float.
535-400 Critical slow cooling down phase for float that overlaps annealing range.
400-300 Medium cooling down ramp rate.
300-10 Fast cooling down ramp rate. Cracking the kiln open possible.
Based on Firing Schedules for Glass; the Kiln Compainion, by Graham Stone, Melbourne, 2000, ISBN 0-646-39733-8, p24
Monday 14 September 2009
Viscosity Changes with Temperature
This is based on Graham Stone’s work with float glass. The temperatures are applicable to float glass, but illustrate the principle of how viscosity changes in a non linear pattern with the increase in temperature. Temperatures are in degrees Celsius.
515 Viscosity 10145 poises (approximate strain point of float)
555 Viscosity 1013 poises
610 Viscosity 1010 poises
730 Viscosity 976 poises
850 Viscosity decreasing faster
900 Viscosity now 105 poises and falling
Based on Firing Schedules for Glass; the Kiln Companion, by Graham Stone, Melbourne, 2000, ISBN 0-646-39733-8, p24.
This shows that viscosity changes rapidly from the lower strain point (the solidification of glass) to annealing. The change slows from the annealing point to full fusing, but changes rapidly after that. This is an important factor to control in casting and free drops.
What is viscosity
Graph of the changes
515 Viscosity 10145 poises (approximate strain point of float)
555 Viscosity 1013 poises
610 Viscosity 1010 poises
730 Viscosity 976 poises
850 Viscosity decreasing faster
900 Viscosity now 105 poises and falling
Based on Firing Schedules for Glass; the Kiln Companion, by Graham Stone, Melbourne, 2000, ISBN 0-646-39733-8, p24.
This shows that viscosity changes rapidly from the lower strain point (the solidification of glass) to annealing. The change slows from the annealing point to full fusing, but changes rapidly after that. This is an important factor to control in casting and free drops.
What is viscosity
Graph of the changes
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