Hot Spots in the Kiln

You may suspect you have hot spots in your kiln because of bubbles or one side of pieces being more fully fused than another. A good method for determining the temperature distribution across the kiln is given on the Bullseye site.  It does not require any sophisticated equipment – just supports equal distances apart and strips of glass equally wide and long – to be witnesses for the hotter and cooler parts of the kiln.  You fire slowly to a very low slump temperature – ca. 620C - for only 5 minutes.  Go as fast as possible to the annealing point and soak for 15mins. Then you can turn the kiln off, and let it cool as fast as the kiln can.

This test will show where the hotter areas are.  You will see from the test results that there is a gradual change of temperature across the shelf, rather than small hot areas that would be required for localised large bubbles originating from under the glass.  It will tell you where the cooler areas are, so you can avoid placing pieces in that area when you need precise profiles on the finished piece.

There is little to no relation between hotter areas of the kiln and localised bubbles.  Do not think hot spots are the cause of large bubbles.

Bubbles more often relate to:

Bubble squeeze

Alack of an adequate bubble squeeze, as described here.

Avoidance is the best approach.

Do not be lead into the idea that mistakes are automatically art, or that all of them can be rescued.

Rapid firing rates

Firing rates need to be adjusted to the materials you are firing.

As fast as possible firing rates can cause problems.

High temperature rapid firings can also cause problems.

Rapid firings are more likely to harm the glass than the kiln.

Damaged shelves

Distortions or damage to shelves can trap air and so cause bubbles to form between the shelf and the bottom of the glass.

Checking for flat shelves and fixing.

There are some remedies.

Volume control

Varying volumes within the piece can give problems.

There are a variety of related things that can cause large bubbles.

Glues

Glues and adhesives have a variety of effects and dangers, especially if generous amounts are used:

There are a variety of glues each with their own characteristics.

Uneven layers/layup

You must think of ways for the air to escape from the interior of the glass and from under the glass.  Most often we set up things in a way that creates bubbles. There are two main ways that we do this.

Encased items

When we put glass or other materials between an upper and lower sheet of glass we are creating conditions for bubbles to form.  The encased items hold the upper glass above the lower glass by an amount related to the thickness of the inclusion.  Routes for the air to escape must be planned. 

One of the ways to reduce the height of the space taken up by the enclosures, is to fire upside down with the inclusions on the shelf. This allows the glass -which will be the bottom layer - to form around the materials, reducing the air space between the bottom and capping layer.  This is known as flip and fire.

You then clean the face which will be capped very thoroughly.  Place the capped piece on fiber paper – which can have Thinfire placed over it, or coat with kiln wash.  This is to allow the air in the uneven bottom surface to escape from underneath through the fibre paper.

Weight

Even when there is no encased material, the weight of the glass pieces on top can create areas where the air can be trapped.  On a single layer the arrangement of pieces can create areas where the glass cannot resist the air pressure that cannot disperse from the pockets caused by the glass on top.  Very clear and generous exits for the air are required.

This can happen with two layers as well, although usually a higher temperature is required.  A means of avoiding large bubbles when there is glass – powders, frits or pieces of glass – placed on top is a two-stage firing of the piece.  First fire the base layers together at full fuse so they become one whole.  Then add the decorative elements on top and fire.  Remember to fire more slowly than for two unfired layers.  The main piece is now 6mm thick and needs a slower rise in temperature.  The additional heat work this entails may mean that a lower top temperature, or a shorter soak will be required than normal.  You will need to peek at intervals to check on the progress of the firing.

There is a multiplicity of ways that bubbles large and small can be created.  Careful layups, bubble squeezes, slower rates of advance and lower top temperatures can minimise, but not always eliminate, bubbles.

Revised28.12.24

Devitrification Temperature Range

Devitrification is the beginning of crystallisation of the surface of the glass. It can look like a dirty film over the whole piece or dirty patches. At its worst, the corners begin to turn up and become “wrinkly”.

This piece shows both mild devitrification and more severe wrinkling on the right side.

The visible occurrence is in the range 720° – 760°C. This means that you need to cool the project quickly as possible from the working (or top) temperature to the annealing point. There is evidence to show that dwelling for a long time in this range on the way up to top temperature can promote devitrification too.

The lower graph line shows the  temperature relationships between annealing (glass transition), devitrification and blowing temperatures.

For more information see this post.

Revised 28.12.24

Kiln Washing Kiln Surfaces

“Having just got my first kiln, I was wondering how often I have to add kiln wash to the bottom of the kiln.”

It has become common practice to kiln wash the bottom of a new kiln.

This may be fine for brick lined kilns.  Kilns with fibre blanket or fibre board do not need to be kiln washed at all.  The fibre is a separator already and does not need additional material which will turn to powder and need to be carefully cleaned to avoid damaging the refractory fibre lining.  This has led me to reconsider the value of kiln washing the bottom of the kiln.

I have followed the practice kiln washing of the bottom of the kiln in the past.  However, I have found that small glass pieces falling to the floor, do not stick to the bare brick or to fibre.  They can be vacuumed or picked from the surface of the kiln without creating any damage.  This means that at fusing temperatures, the brick and fibre does not stick to the glass and kiln wash is not needed.

The main idea seems to be to help protect the kiln surfaces from the molten glass if a relay becomes stuck, raising the kiln temperature to very high levels. Kiln washing the bottom of the kiln does not protect the brick or fibre from a large amount of glass running off the edge of the shelf onto the bottom. Of course, pieces of glass resting on the floor of the kiln may become stuck when higher temperature work is being conducted, such as combing, the various melts, and casting.  The solution is not to kiln wash the floor, but to clean the floor of the kiln before entering the high temperature processes.

There is not really a need to kiln wash the bottom of the kiln at all.  The kiln wash will not protect the kiln brick or fibre in the event of a high temperature accident.  The kiln wash turns to powder which needs to be cleaned from the kiln to avoid contamination, as with other dusts, of the glass being fired.  The main objective is to keep the kiln clean and free of dust rather than adding another source of dust.  A dusty atmosphere in the kiln can promote devitrification, so anything which avoids introducing dust will be beneficial in reducing the incidence of devitrification.

I suppose if you really want to protect the bottom of the kiln from molten glass, you can add a high temperature separator such as a refractory fibre board, or a thin layer of sand.  The sand will resist the molten glass and can be scooped out of the bottom before adding new. 

After some consideration, I no longer think kiln washing the bottom of kilns is worth the potential for dust accumulation, as it doesn’t really protect the kiln floor during high temperature accidents. Low temperature spills of frit, glass powder and shards will lift off the kiln surfaces easily without damage to surfaces.

Kiln Cleanliness

Problems with finished pieces can be caused by an untidy or dusty kiln interior.  Pieces can be affected by devitrification or specks of refractory material in or on the fired project.

Dust is a common problem.  Kiln wash, fibre papers and combustion products all produce particles that are collectively referred to as dust.

Vacuuming the kiln regularly is a good practice to keep the dust down.  It is best if the vacuum has a variable suction control to avoid damage to the refractory materials which make up the kiln.  It is best to use a brush attachment rather than the bare hose.

Dust on the brick or fibre board floor of kilns can be vacuumed easily if you remove the shelf.  Usually you need to use the most suction available to pick up heavier particles such as glass frit along with the dust that accumulates on the floor.

Dust also accumulates on the sides and top of the kiln too.  If you have brick sides and tops, you can continue to use the high suction.  You need to be careful around the elements so that you do not bump them.  This is where the brush attachment is most useful, as you can gently brush out any accumulated dust and any loose particles from the brick.

If you have fibre sides or top, the high suction setting on the vacuum will pull fibres from the refractory material.  You need to use a low setting to avoid damaging the insulating materials.  Gently pass the brush attachment along the insulating fibre and along the elements.

This vacuuming of the kiln does not need to be done on every firing, only at regular intervals.  It is also a good time to check the condition of the elements and condition of the interior of the kiln.  Any element tail connections can be checked for tightness.  The condition of the bricks can be checked as you vacuum. 

Of course, if you are going to fire an important piece, it is a good idea to make sure the kiln is clean before you start. But daily cleaning is not required.

It is not only the interior structure of the kiln that needs to be clean.  You should be checking the cleanliness of your kiln furniture too.  Make sure you keep the shelves dust free and regularly kiln wash them.  Check the kiln posts for flaking kiln wash and dust.  Clean off any dust or loose material and re-coat as necessary.  

And while you are doing all this cleaning, you could vacuum the outside of the kiln too.

Firing Bullseye and Oceanside Together

Is it possible to fire Oceanside (formerly Spectrum) and Bullseye at the same time?

Yes, it is possible to fire pieces made of Oceanside and pieces made of Bullseye in the same firing – as long as the glass is not mixed in one piece.

There will be differences in profile as the temperatures for Spectrum are a little less than for Bullseye at all stages.  A rounded tack for Spectrum will be a much sharper edged tack for the Bullseye, etc.  If you can accommodate those differences you can continue to fire.

It is a bit easier on slumping operations as you can use the lower slumping temperature for Spectrum and extend the soak for the Bullseye glass.  Or, choose a mould for the Bullseye that requires less time than the Spectrum, so they complete the slump at the same time.

The annealing points are different, of course.  But not by much – Spectrum is 510°C and Bullseye 516°C (for any but thick pieces).  These are not far away from each other.

There are two main approaches to annealing different glass in the same firing.

One is to use a shotgun approach.  This means that you choose your upper anneal soak – in this case 516°C – and hold the temperature for the required amount of time.  Then proceed more slowly than usual – say 50°C /hour rather than 80C/hour – until about 55°C below the lower anneal point.  Then proceed to the rest of the cooling.

The other approach is to anneal soak at both annealing points before proceeding to the anneal cool.  This approach is probably best with thicker than 6mm pieces than the shotgun method.  It is also required if you use the Bullseye lower annealing point of 482C.  You would anneal at 510°C and again at 482°C and soak at each point for the required time for thickness.  This doubles the annealing time, thus reducing the advantage of one over two firings.

There is a third approach for pieces less than 9mm that will eliminate the double anneal soak.  Choose a single annealing temperature.  The two annealing points for Bullseye and Spectrum are so close (510°C and 516°C) that you could chose a mid-point between them (say 513°C) and soak there before proceeding to the anneal cool.  

It might be even better to choose a temperature midway between 510°C and 482°C (say 499°C) and soak both glasses for a longer period to ensure the temperature is equalised before proceeding to a slow rate of anneal cool.  This will be especially applicable for tack fused pieces, which require more care than full fused pieces.  Remember that you should be soaking at the temperature equalisation hold for at least twice the thickness of the thickest part of the piece.  Then reduce the temperature at the rate recommended for the thickness indicated.  Look at the Bullseye chart for annealing thick slabs for the rates. 

The reason that you can anneal at different temperatures is that annealing occurs over a range of temperature.   The annealing point is the temperature at which annealing can most quickly occur.  There are several of physical changes that are affected by temperature and rates of cooling. 

If you cool too quickly after the anneal soak, you will induce stress and probable breakage.  The cooling after the anneal soak is an essential part of the whole annealing process.  Annealing at a lower temperature requires more certainty that the glass is all equal in temperature.  This means a longer anneal (or temperature equalisation) soak is required.  It is also a good bet to slow the anneal cool to be less than you would use for a single glass.

Further information is available in the ebook: Low Temperature Kiln Forming.