Texture Moulds

 Texture moulds are a form of bas relief in reverse. The texture of the mould is the bas relief. The glass formed over the shapes is in negative relief. The light is refracted through th
e back to give an image of bas relief although the surface is smooth.

 

Example of wave form texture mould

 These moulds are prone to produce bubbles at the generally recommended tack fuse temperatures. The glass often sticks to the mould if there is not sufficient draft to the parts of the image, or if insufficient separator is used. Often the moulds are produced with a rim around the edges, which trap the glass.

 The usual temperatures are too high. These moulds are an exercise in patience. The temptation is to fire higher than slumping temperatures to get good definition in the glass. However, a number of problems, especially bubbles, can be avoided by staying at the high end of slumping temperatures. This means the top temperature would be about 680C. To compensate for this low temperature, the soak needs to be three hours or more. To be sure the definition desired has been achieved, peeking near the end of this long soak is necessary. 

 Moulds that are produced with a rim around the edges can trap air and create bubbles. The rim forms a perimeter dam to confine the glass. If the rate of rise is quick to a high temperature, the edges can be sealed against the rim before all the air has escaped. It is advisable to cut the glass for these rimmed moulds a bit smaller than the internal dimensions formed by the rim.

 

Example of textured area surrounded by a rim

 Use of single layers on texture moulds can lead to large, thin bubbles. This is most prevalent when using high temperatures. Since the single layers tend to form more slowly than an already fused two-layer piece, the temptation is to use higher temperatures. The higher temperatures soften the glass to such an extent that often bubbles form over the lower areas of the mould. Instead, low temperatures with extremely long soaks should be used to allow the glass to conform to the undulations of the texture without dog boning or developing bubbles. Of course, peeking will be required to determine when the texture is achieved. With single layers, the surface will have greater undulations than with two layers. The thinness of the single layer cannot fill the depression the way two layers can.

 

 Rapid rates to high temperatures can produce internal bubbles too. These moulds have a multiplicity of hollows and depressions. Just as people are warned about depressions in their shelves, the depressions in the texture moulds can cause bubbles too. This means there are even more possibilities for bubble creation than on apparently flat shelves. Long slow bubble squeezes are required to allow air from under the glass.

 Glass sometimes sticks to the mould. This is most often blamed on insufficient separator. Boron nitride is a good separator for these moulds especially if you go to tack fusing temperatures. At slumping temperatures, kiln wash will normally be sufficient. Both of these separators need to be applied carefully, as there are relatively steep slopes throughout the mould. Spraying needs to be done from at least four angles to ensure all the sides are covered.

 Painting on kiln wash is a little more difficult, as the solution is so liquid, it tends to run down the slopes without much sticking. One means of rectifying this is to tip the mould in a circular motion to move the still liquid kiln wash solution around the slopes.

 Less often thought about is the draft of the shapes of the mould. If the slopes (draft) in the mould are too steep, the glass will “grab” the ceramic mould, because the ceramic contracts less than the glass when cooling. If shapes of the mould are steep and deep enough, the glass may even break as a result of this compression of the mould.

 

An example of some nearly vertical elements and a rim

 Of course, if a flat front surface is required, a higher than slumping temperature must be used. This is required to allow the glass to flow to the lower portions of the mould. It still should be as low as possible, but with very long soaks.

 Avoidance of bubbles on, and sticking to, texture moulds is best achieved by avoiding high temperatures, use long soaks, use two layers, and avoid extending glass to the rim. These combined with observation of the progress of the firing will produce the best results.

 

Other information is available:

Low Temperature Kilnforming, an Evidence-Based Approach to Scheduling, an ebook

Bas relief

Layups promoting bubbles

 

Ceramic Drape Moulds

Characteristics of materials

One of elements you need to consider in selecting a mould for draping is the characteristics of the ceramic material in relation to the glass being draped.  

Ceramic

Ceramic materials have what are called inversions. These are  points at which the ceramic has a quick change in expansion both on the heat up and cool down.  The two major ones are cristobalite inversion temperature at around 225°C and the quartz inversion at about 570°C.  The Crystobalite inversion is a sudden change of about 2.5% and the quartz is a sudden change of 1%.  These are very sudden and dramatic changes in comparison to the average of around 0.1% over the temperature range of 570°C to 800°C.  The crystobalite inversion does not occur until ca. 225°C.  This means that the whole structure of the ceramic is contracting less than the glass – exhibiting a CoE of ca. 66 rather 90 to 96.

Ceramic drape mould from Creative Glass Guild

Glass

We are used to saying glass expands and contracts at a standard rate, depending on the glass this may be a CoE of 83 to one of 104.  This is not the case.  The coefficient is an average calculated between 20°C and 300°C.  If you change the temperature range, the coefficient will also change.  And if you look at the range 570°C to 580°C you find the CoE is around 500.  This means that as the glass cools into the annealing range, it is contracting about 7 times faster than the ceramic. 

This dramatic difference in contraction means that the glass is attempting to crush the ceramic by enclosing it tightly.  Sometimes it does it so strongly that the strength of the glass is exceeded, and it breaks.

Possibilities

It is possible to drape over ceramic in certain conditions.

Influence of draft

The term “draft” indicates the slope of the sides of the form.  The steeper the sides, the more likely the glass is to trap the ceramic mould.  To be useful, the draft of the mould needs to be sufficient for the glass to slide upwards on the mould as it cools. This means the mould needs smooth sides and be well covered with a separator.

Compensations

You can compensate for steep drafts by wrapping the ceramic form in 3mm refractory fibre paper.  You can bind this with high temperature wire to ensure it stays throughout the firing. The fibre paper can be compressed and so provides a cushion between the rapidly contracting glass and the slowly contracting ceramic.

These need a circle of 3mm fibre paper over the open top of the kiln posts that have no draft at all before use. Of course, they need to have a circular piece of fibre paper over the hole in the post.

The use of ceramic forms to drape over requires care about the draft of the ceramic or addition of a cushion to avoid the greater contraction of the glass than the ceramic grabbing the mould so tightly it cannot be removed.

Using Ceramic to Drape

Characteristics

Before choosing a ceramic shape to use in draping of glass, you need to consider the characteristics of the two materials.  This is one circumstance where CoE is actually useful. 

The expansion of the two materials is different. Soda lime glass typically has an expansion rate - in the 0°C to 300°C range - of 81 to 104.  Ceramic has an expansion rate - in the 0°C to 400°C range - of 30 to 64.  This is important in the final cooling of the project.  As the glass expands more than the ceramic on the heat-up, so it also contracts more during the cool.  This means that the glass will shrink enough to trap the ceramic or even break if the stress on the glass is too much. 

Shape

The shape of the ceramic form will have a big effect on the usability of it as a mould.  Ceramics with right angles between the flat surface and the sides will not be suitable for draping without modifications or cushioning.  The forms suitable for draping need to have a significant draft to work well.

Ceramic forms such as rectangles, cubes, and cylinders do not have any draft in their form.  

A cube shape unsuitable for draping

Ceramic cylinders with straight sides

Although rounded at the base, the sides are too straight to be a draping mould

The glass will contract around these forms until they are stuck to the ceramic or break from the force of the contraction around the ceramic.

You can experience this trapping effect in a stack of drinking glasses.  Sometimes one glass sticks inside another even though there is a slope (i.e., a draft) on the sides of the glasses. This happens mostly when you put a cold glass inside a warm one.  On cooling the warm glass contracts to trap the cooler one. You can separate these by running hot water on the bottom glass, so that it expands and releases the inner, now cool, one. 

Effect of Shape

The ceramic contracts at about half the rate the glass contracts (on average), unlike steel which contracts faster than the glass. This means steel contracts away from the glass, while the glass contracts against the ceramic, on the cooling.

Because the glass is in its brittle or solid phase during the last 300°C to 400°C, this contraction tightens the glass against the ceramic, causing stress in the glass, even to the point of breaking.

However, if you choose ceramic forms with significant draft, you can drape over ceramic.  This is possible when the slope is great enough and the form is coated with enough separator, to allow the glass to slip upwards as it contracts more than the form. Experience with different draft forms will give you a feel for the degree of slope required. 

 

These pyramid shapes have sufficient draft to allow the glass to move up the mould during cooling.

Compensation for Lack of Draft

You can compensate for the insufficient draft of ceramic forms by increasing the thickness of the separators for the form.  The hot glass will conform to the hot ceramic, so there needs to be a means of keeping the glass from compressing the form while cooling.  This can most easily be done by wrapping the form that has little or no draft with 3mm ceramic fibre paper.  It is possible to get by with as little as 1mm fibre paper, but I like the assurance of the thicker material.

Kiln posts wrapped in 3mm fibre paper and secured with copper wire

The fibre paper can be held to the form by thin wire wrapped around the outside of the fibre paper. The advantage of the 3mm fibre paper is that the wire will sink below the surface of the paper.  You can tie off the wire with a couple of twists.  Cut off the ends and push the twist flat to the fibre paper to keep the glass from catching onto the wire.  If you want further assurance, you can put a bit of kiln wash onto the wire.

Conclusion

The choice of ceramic shapes to drape glass over is very important.  It needs to have sufficient draft and separator to allow the glass to slip upwards as it contracts more than the ceramic during the cooling.  You often can use items with no draft if you wrap fibre paper around the sides of the form.

Slumping and Draping materials - Kiln Forming Myths 12

Always slump into ceramic, drape over steel

This myth is based on the fact that steel expands and contracts more than glass and ceramic expands and contracts less.

So, the myth goes, slumping into steel means the glass will be trapped or crushed by the contracting steel.  But draping over means the steel will contract more than the glass making the removal of the glass easy.

The reverse is the expectation for ceramic.  Slumping into the ceramic allows the greater contraction of the glass to be removed from the mould without sticking.  But draping over means the glass traps itself against the ceramic as a result of its greater contraction.

These things are true.  But….

The most important thing in considering a mould is the draft.  This not about cold air, but the angles of the mould. A mould with vertical sides will not release the casting or kiln formed object even if the expansion characteristics of the two materials are identical. To release, the mould must have a slight angle from the vertical away from the glass.  This applies whether a slump or a drape.  This is called a positive draft, as illustrated.

www afsinc org

 And here

If the draft is sufficient, it does not matter whether you are slumping or draping into steel.  In using a stainless steel mixing bowl for draping, you can only use the lower portion where the angle is shallow.  If you rest the glass on the rim, the draft will be too steep to allow the glass to slide upwards as the steel contracts on cooling.

www evetsourcesolutions com

Even when draping over steel, you need to have a draft to aid the easy removal of the glass, as in this example:

creativeglassguild co uk

When draping over ceramic, you need to be careful that you have sufficient draft over the whole of the mould. In the case of this ceramic draping mould you need to make sure the glass is not fully formed as the steep portion at the top will be where the glass grabs the mould.

glassartbymargo com

And if you were to use this casting mould as a slumping mould, the steep straight sides would make it difficult to get the glass out of the mould. 

sundanceglass.com

Although the facts behind the statement “slump into ceramic, drape over steel” are established, you need to understand that the draft of the mould is as important as the way in which you use the material.

All myths have an element of truth in them otherwise they would not persist.

They also persist because people listen to the “rules” rather than thinking about the principles and applying them.  It is when you understand the principles that you can successfully break the “rules”.

Freeze and Fuse

The object of this technique is to make a shaped piece without use of a refractory mould. It is applicable to small items.

You can use jelly, soap, candle, etc. moulds. They can be rigid or flexible. They should be without undercuts and have a draft, which is why jelly, soap, and candle moulds are so suitable. Be careful of the size, as a large amount of frit can be required even for a small mould.

Some people use only powder for this process. I use a 50/50 combination of powder and fine frit. You can use clear frit with powder. If you do so, you need to measure out the appropriate amounts.  Then put the frit and some water into a container with a closure. Close and shake to wet the frit. Then add the powder and shake again to ensure the powder adheres to the frit. Once thoroughly mixed, add more water to make a thick slurry.

Pack the mould with the mixture. Then using absorbent paper towels firmly pat the contents of the mould as dry as you can. Place the mould in the freezer for at least a couple of hours, or for large ones overnight.

When frozen, remove from the mould and place on the kiln shelf. The shelf needs a separator which can be kiln wash or fibre paper. Some leave the piece to thaw out and some more of the water to evaporate.

Whether you fire immediately or let the piece thaw and evaporate, you need to fire slowly to 100C and soak there until no more moisture is evident to avoid creating pockets of steam that will blow the piece apart. After that you can fire as normal for an initial firing of a two layer piece.

The piece will shrink a bit during the firing, but it is safe to anneal for the original thickness of the frozen piece. If you have a large piece or one with lots of variation in thickness, you should use at least the next thickness up from the Bullseye tables for annealing thick pieces. Sometimes you should use two steps up.

Further information is available in the ebook Low Temperature Kiln Forming.

Candle Bridge Moulds

A candle bridge mould is one of the most difficult moulds to use successfully. The problems relate to the kinds of work you are trying to do, the size of the glass to put onto the mould, the shape of the piece and the stability of the resulting piece.

With a candle bridge you are trying to do a combination of slumping and draping at the same time. You are slumping into the middle and draping over the curved sides.

Additionally the candle mould requires the glass to fall into a small opening and this requires long soak times. Long soak times mean the glass that is draping stretches while the central portion is trying to fall into the opening. Of course, if you don't want the depression to be flat, you don't have to soak so long and the stretching effects on the draping part of the of the glass won't be so great.

It would seem logical to measure the mould around the drapery curve (or arc of the mould) and to the shape of the ends, but experience has shown me that this leads to glass that is too long along the sides and bent at the ends. So I cut my blanks for candle moulds as a rectangle without curved ends and then round the corners of the rectangle just a little by nipping them with my grozing pliers before fusing.

If you measure along the top and along the length of the mould you have a piece of glass that will be increasing in length at the draping part of the mould, meaning that it will fall off the curve and onto the draft (or side) of the mould. The draft is an angle from the vertical. Good moulds are made with a draft so that if glass were to fall over the edge it still will be possible to get the glass off the mould.

The draft on a mould means the diameter of a circular one is greater at the base than it is at the rim. And it is common to measure only the diameter at the rim.  In the same way the dimensions at the outside base of a rectangular mould are larger than the rim of the mould.

Back to the rectangular candle mould. The draft on this means that measuring the base of the mould is slightly wider than the curved part of the mould, but less than if measured around its curved portion.

Experience has shown that in the case of the candle moulds measuring the width of the mould is sufficient. There is enough height in the moulds I have used that it does not make any functional difference if the glass does not reach the bottom of the curve on the mould. It is better than hanging off the edge.

The length of the glass should be no longer than the shortest part of the mould's length. Cutting a curve into the glass to allow a small overhang produces a depressed lip because of the length of the soak required for the slump into the small aperture of the candle depressions.

My soak for candle moulds is 90 minutes at my process temperature. This gives me a flat depressed area for the candle to sit, but it also means that the draping glass has been stretching. And it also means that the glass will drape unevenly as the various colours absorb heat differently allowing some parts of the glass to stretch more than others.

The placing of the glass on the mould is absolutely critical. It must be exactly parallel to the sides of the mould. Any slight movement from that will induce a twist in the resulting piece allowing it to rock. Arranging it exactly right and placing some kiln washed furniture at each side to keep it in place until it begins to slump is an important aid.  
The glass will begin to bend before it sticks to the kiln furniture.

I have never been able to get a stable candle mould whether from 3mm or 6mm thick glass. I always have to grind the base a little to make a stable piece. I take it as part of the process, but careful placing reduces the work.

Complications in Moulds

Moulds that are easy to slump into are more complicated than they appear. When choosing a mould or making one yourself, there are some things that should be considered.

Steepness, Draft and Undercuts are three elements that can make a mould easy or difficult to use, or make it a one use mould, or a reusable one.

Steepness of the sides or any part of the mould are considerations that make it easy to form the glass to. The steepness of the sides, affect how the glass slides down it. The steeper it is the more likely the glass is likely to hang up on it. This will promote uneven slumps, and needling along the areas where the glass has hung on the mould. The steepness or sharpness of curves within the mould determines how much time and heat is required to allow the glass to conform to the mould. So the steeper the curves, the more time and the less heat is required. For moulds with lots of detail, more time is needed – the amount of heat will be determined by the steepness of the draft of the mould.

Draft relates to the angle of the sides of the mould. A mould with perfectly parallel sides will not release from the mould. In order for the glass to be released from the mould, there must always be an angle making the bottom smaller than the top. The nearer the draft is to parallel the more difficult the piece will be to remove.

Undercuts are the places where the bottom or lower parts of the mould are wider than the upper parts of the mould. This means the mould must be destroyed to allow the glass to be removed. These are therefore single use moulds. If the shape needs to be repeated, a master mould needs to be taken so the mould can be repeated in a material that can be easily broken away from the glass. This is of course, getting into the region of casting moulds.